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The Parable of the Persistent Widow
18 And he told them a parable to the effect that they ought ralways to pray and not slose heart. 2 He said, “In a certain city there was a judge who tneither feared God nor respected man. 3 And there was a widow in that city who kept coming to him and saying, ‘Give me justice against my adversary.’ 4 For a while he refused, but afterward he said to himself, u‘Though I neither fear God nor respect man, 5 yet because this widow keeps bothering me, I will give her justice, so that she will not beat me down by her continual coming.’ ” 6 And the Lord said, “Hear what the unrighteous judge says. 7 And vwill not God give justice to whis elect, xwho cry to him day and night? yzWill he delay long over them? 8 I tell you, he will give justice to them aspeedily. Nevertheless, when the Son of Man comes, bwill he find faith on earth?”
The Pharisee and the Tax Collector
9 He also told this parable to some cwho trusted din themselves that they were righteous, eand treated others with contempt: 10 “Two men fwent up into the temple to pray, one a Pharisee and the other a tax collector. 11 The Pharisee, gstanding by himself, prayed1 hthus: ‘God, I thank you that I am not like other men, extortioners, unjust, adulterers, or even like this tax collector. 12 iI fast twice a week; jI give tithes of all that I get.’ 13 But the tax collector, gstanding far off, kwould not even lift up his eyes to heaven, but lbeat his breast, saying, ‘God, mbe merciful to me, a sinner!’ 14 I tell you, this man went down to his house justified, rather than the other. For neveryone who exalts himself will be humbled, but the one who humbles himself will be exalted.”
15 oNow they were bringing even infants to him that he might touch them. And when the disciples saw it, they prebuked them. 16 But Jesus called them to him, saying, q“Let the children come to me, and rdo not hinder them, qfor to such belongs the kingdom of God. 17 sTruly, I say to you, whoever does not treceive the kingdom of God like a child shall not enter it.”
18 uAnd a ruler asked him, “Good Teacher, what must I do to vinherit eternal life?” 19 And Jesus said to him, “Why do you call me good? No one is good except God alone. 20 You know the commandments: w‘Do not commit adultery, Do not murder, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Honor your father and mother.’ ” 21 And he said, x“All these I have kept from my youth.” 22 When Jesus heard this, he said to him, “One thing you still lack. ySell all that you have and distribute to the poor, and you will have ztreasure in heaven; and come, follow me.” 23 aBut when he heard these things, he became very sad, for he was extremely rich. 24 Jesus, seeing that he had become sad, said, b“How difficult it is for those who have wealth to enter cthe kingdom of God! 25 For it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich person to enter cthe kingdom of God.” 26 Those who heard it said, “Then who can be saved?” 27 But he said, d“What is impossible with man is possible with God.” 28 And Peter said, “See, ewe have left our homes and followed you.” 29 And he said to them, “Truly, I say to you, fthere is no one who has left house or wife or brothers2 or parents or children, for the sake of the kingdom of God, 30 who will not receive gmany times more hin this time, and in ithe age to come eternal life.”
Jesus Foretells His Death a Third Time
31 jAnd taking the twelve, he said to them, “See, kwe are going up to Jerusalem, and leverything that is written about the Son of Man by the prophets will be accomplished. 32 For he will be mdelivered over to the Gentiles and will be nmocked and shamefully treated and ospit upon. 33 And after flogging him, they will kill him, and on pthe third day he will rise.” 34 qBut they understood none of these things. rThis saying was hidden from them, and they did not grasp what was said.
35 sAs he drew near to Jericho, ta blind man was sitting by the roadside begging. 36 And hearing a crowd going by, he inquired what this meant. 37 They told him, u“Jesus of Nazareth is passing by.” 38 And he cried out, “Jesus, vSon of David, have mercy on me!” 39 And those who were in front wrebuked him, telling him to be silent. But he cried out all the more, “Son of David, have mercy on me!” 40 And Jesus stopped and commanded him to be brought to him. And when he came near, he asked him, 41 x“What do you want me to do for you?” He said, “Lord, let me recover my sight.” 42 And Jesus said to him, “Recover your sight; yyour faith has zmade you well.” 43 And immediately he recovered his sight and followed him, aglorifying God. And ball the people, when they saw it, gave praise to God.
19 cHe entered Jericho and was passing through. 2 And behold, there was a man named Zacchaeus. He was a chief tax collector and was rich. 3 And dhe was seeking to see who Jesus was, but on account of the crowd he could not, because he was small in stature. 4 So he ran on ahead and climbed up into ea sycamore tree to see him, for he was about to pass that way. 5 And when Jesus came to the place, he looked up and said to him, “Zacchaeus, hurry and come down, for fI must stay at your house today.” 6 So he hurried and came down and greceived him joyfully. 7 And when they saw it, they all hgrumbled, “He has gone in to be the guest of a man who is a sinner.” 8 And Zacchaeus stood and said to the Lord, “Behold, Lord, the half of my goods iI give to the poor. And if I have jdefrauded anyone of anything, I restore it kfourfold.” 9 And Jesus said to him, “Today salvation has come to this house, since lhe also is a son of Abraham. 10 For mthe Son of Man came to seek and to save the lost.”
11 As they heard these things, he proceeded to tell a parable, because he was near to Jerusalem, and because nthey supposed that the kingdom of God was to appear immediately. 12 He said therefore, o“A nobleman went into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom and then return. 13 Calling pten of his servants,1 he gave them ten minas,2 and said to them, ‘Engage in business quntil I come.’ 14 But rhis citizens hated him and sent a delegation after him, saying, ‘We do not want this man to reign over us.’ 15 When he returned, having received the kingdom, he ordered these servants to whom he had given the money to be called to him, that he might know what they had gained by doing business. 16 The first came before him, saying, ‘Lord, your mina has made ten minas more.’ 17 And he said to him, ‘Well done, good servant!3 Because you have been sfaithful in a very little, tyou shall have authority over ten cities.’ 18 And the second came, saying, ‘Lord, your mina has made five minas.’ 19 And he said to him, ‘And you are to be over five cities.’ 20 Then another came, saying, ‘Lord, here is your mina, which I kept laid away in ua handkerchief; 21 for I was afraid of you, because you are va severe man. You take wwhat you did not deposit, and reap what you did not sow.’ 22 He said to him, x‘I will condemn you with your own words, yyou wicked servant! You knew that I was va severe man, taking what I did not deposit and reaping what I did not sow? 23 Why then did you not put my money in the bank, and at my coming I might have collected it with interest?’ 24 And he said to those who stood by, ‘Take the mina from him, and give it to the one who has the ten minas.’ 25 And they said to him, ‘Lord, he has ten minas!’ 26 ‘I tell you that zto everyone who has, more will be given, but from the one who has not, even what he has will be taken away. 27 But ras for these enemies of mine, who did not want me to reign over them, bring them here and aslaughter them before me.’ ”
28 And when he had said these things, bhe went on ahead, cgoing up to Jerusalem. 29 dWhen he drew near to Bethphage and eBethany, at fthe mount that is called Olivet, he sent gtwo of the disciples, 30 saying, “Go into the village in front of you, where on entering you will find a colt tied, hon which no one has ever yet sat. Untie it and bring it here. 31 If anyone asks you, ‘Why are you untying it?’ you shall say this: ‘The Lord has need of it.’ ” 32 So those who were sent went away and found it ijust as he had told them. 33 And as they were untying the colt, its owners said to them, “Why are you untying the colt?” 34 And they said, “The Lord has need of it.” 35 And they brought it to Jesus, and throwing their cloaks on the colt, they set Jesus on it. 36 And as he rode along, they jspread their cloaks on the road. 37 As he was drawing near—already on the way down the Mount of Olives—kthe whole multitude of his disciples began to rejoice and praise God with a loud voice lfor all the mighty works that they had seen, 38 saying, m“Blessed is nthe King who comes in the name of the Lord! Peace in heaven and oglory in the highest!” 39 pAnd some of the Pharisees in the crowd said to him, “Teacher, rebuke your disciples.” 40 He answered, “I tell you, if these were silent, qthe very stones would cry out.”
41 rAnd when he drew near and saw the city, she wept over it, 42 saying, t“Would that you, even you, had known on this day the things that make for peace! But now uthey are hidden from your eyes. 43 For vthe days will come upon you, when your enemies wwill set up a barricade around you and xsurround you and hem you in on every side 44 yand tear you down to the ground, you and your children within you. And zthey will not leave one stone upon another in you, because you did not know athe time of your bvisitation.”
45 cAnd he entered the temple and began to drive out those who sold, 46 saying to them, “It is written, d‘My house shall be a house of prayer,’ but eyou have made it a den of robbers.”
47 fAnd he was teaching daily in the temple. gThe chief priests and the scribes and the principal men of the people were seeking to destroy him, 48 but they did not find anything they could do, for all the people were hanging on his words.
The Authority of Jesus Challenged
20 hOne day, ias Jesus1 was teaching the people in the temple and preaching the gospel, jthe chief priests and the scribes with the elders came up 2 and said to him, “Tell us kby what authority you do these things, or who it is that gave you this authority.” 3 He answered them, “I also will ask you a question. Now tell me, 4 was the baptism of John lfrom heaven or from man?” 5 And they discussed it with one another, saying, “If we say, ‘From heaven,’ he will say, m‘Why did you not believe him?’ 6 But if we say, ‘From man,’ all the people will stone us to death, for they are convinced that John was na prophet.” 7 So they answered that they did not know where it came from. 8 And Jesus said to them, “Neither will I tell you by what authority I do these things.”
The Parable of the Wicked Tenants
9 oAnd he began to tell the people this parable: “A man planted pa vineyard and qlet it out to tenants and rwent into another country for a long while. 10 When the time came, he sent a servant2 to the tenants, so that qthey would give him some of the fruit of the vineyard. sBut the tenants beat him and sent him away empty-handed. 11 tAnd she sent another servant. But they also beat and utreated him shamefully, and sent him away empty-handed. 12 sAnd he sent yet a third. This one also they wounded and cast out. 13 Then the owner of the vineyard said, ‘What shall I do? I will send my vbeloved son; perhaps they will respect him.’ 14 But when the tenants saw him, they said to themselves, w‘This is the heir. xLet us kill him, so that the inheritance may be ours.’ 15 And they ythrew him out of the vineyard and killed him. What then will the owner of the vineyard do to them? 16 zHe will acome and destroy those tenants and bgive the vineyard to others.” When they heard this, they said, “Surely not!” 17 But he clooked directly at them and said, “What then is this that is written:
d“ ‘The stone that the builders rejected
has become the cornerstone’?3
18 eEveryone who falls on that stone will be broken to pieces, and when it falls fon anyone, it will crush him.”
19 hThe scribes and the chief priests sought to lay hands on him at that very hour, for they perceived that he had told this parable against them, but they feared the people. 20 iSo they jwatched him and sent spies, who kpretended to be sincere, that they might lcatch him in something he said, so as to deliver him up to the authority and jurisdiction of mthe governor. 21 So they asked him, “Teacher, we know that you speak and teach rightly, and oshow no partiality,4 but truly teach pthe way of God. 22 Is it lawful for us to give qtribute to rCaesar, or not?” 23 But he perceived their scraftiness, and said to them, 24 “Show me ta denarius.5 Whose likeness and inscription does it have?” They said, “Caesar’s.” 25 He said to them, “Then urender to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s.” 26 And they were not able in the presence of the people vto catch him in what he said, but marveling at his answer they became silent.
Sadducees Ask About the Resurrection
27 There came to him wsome Sadducees, xthose who deny that there is a resurrection, 28 and they asked him a question, saying, “Teacher, Moses wrote for us ythat if a man’s brother dies, having a wife but no children, the man6 must take the widow and raise up offspring for his brother. 29 Now there were seven brothers. The first took a wife, and died without children. 30 And the second 31 and the third took her, and likewise all seven left no children and died. 32 Afterward the woman also died. 33 In the resurrection, therefore, whose wife will the woman be? For the seven had her as wife.”
34 And Jesus said to them, z“The sons of this age amarry and aare given in marriage, 35 but those who are bconsidered worthy to attain to cthat age and to the resurrection from the dead dneither marry dnor are given in marriage, 36 for ethey cannot die anymore, because they are fequal to angels and gare hsons of God, being isons7 of the resurrection. 37 But that the dead are raised, jeven Moses showed, in kthe passage about the bush, where he calls lthe Lord the God of Abraham and the God of Isaac and the God of Jacob. 38 Now he is not God of the dead, but of the living, for all mlive to him.” 39 Then some of the scribes nanswered, “Teacher, you have spoken well.” 40 For othey no longer dared to ask him any question.
41 pBut he said to them, “How can they say that qthe Christ is qDavid’s son? 42 For David himself says in the Book of Psalms,
r“ ‘The Lord said to my Lord,
“Sit at my right hand,
43 until I make your enemies syour footstool.” ’
44 David thus calls him Lord, so thow is he his son?”
45 uAnd in the hearing of all the people he said to his disciples, 46 “Beware of the scribes, who like to walk around in long robes, and love greetings in the marketplaces and the best seats in the synagogues and vthe places of honor at feasts, 47 wwho devour widows’ houses and xfor a pretense make long prayers. They will receive the greater condemnation.”
21 yJesus1 looked up and saw the rich zputting their gifts into athe offering box, 2 and he saw a poor widow put in two bsmall copper coins.2 3 And he said, “Truly, I tell you, cthis poor widow has put in more than all of them. 4 For they all contributed out of their abundance, but she out of her dpoverty put in all eshe had to live on.”
Jesus Foretells Destruction of the Temple
5 fAnd while some were speaking of the temple, how it was adorned with noble stones and offerings, he said, 6 “As for these things that you see, gthe days will come when there will not be left here one stone upon another that will not be thrown down.” 7 And they asked him, “Teacher, hwhen will these things be, and what will be the sign when these things are about to take place?” 8 And he said, i“See that you are not led astray. For jmany will come in my name, saying, k‘I am he!’ and, l‘The time is at hand!’ Do not go after them. 9 And when you hear of wars and tumults, do not be mterrified, for these things nmust first take place, but the end will not be at once.”
Jesus Foretells Wars and Persecution
10 Then he said to them, o“Nation will rise against nation, and pkingdom against kingdom. 11 There will be great qearthquakes, and in various places rfamines and pestilences. And there will be sterrors and great tsigns from heaven. 12 But before all this uthey will lay their hands on you and persecute you, delivering you up to vthe synagogues and wprisons, and you xwill be brought before ykings and zgovernors for my name’s sake. 13 aThis will be your opportunity to bear witness. 14 Settle it therefore in your minds bnot to meditate beforehand how to answer, 15 for cI will give you a mouth and dwisdom, which none of your adversaries will be able to withstand or econtradict. 16 You will be delivered up feven by parents and brothers3 and relatives and friends, and some of you they will put to death. 17 gYou will be hated by all for my name’s sake. 18 But hnot a hair of your head will perish. 19 By your iendurance you will gain your lives.
Jesus Foretells Destruction of Jerusalem
20 “But jwhen you see Jerusalem surrounded by armies, then know that kits desolation has come near. 21 Then let those who are in Judea flee to the mountains, and let those who are inside the city depart, and let not those who are out in the country enter it, 22 for these are ldays of mvengeance, to fulfill nall that is written. 23 oAlas for women who are pregnant and for those who are nursing infants in those days! For there will be great distress upon the earth and pwrath against this people. 24 They will fall by the edge of the sword and qbe led captive among all nations, and rJerusalem will be trampled underfoot by the Gentiles, suntil the times of the Gentiles are fulfilled.
25 “And tthere will be signs in sun and moon uand stars, and on the earth vdistress of nations in perplexity because of the roaring of the sea and the waves, 26 people fainting with fear and with foreboding of what is coming on the world. For wthe powers of the heavens will be shaken. 27 And then they will see xthe Son of Man coming in a cloud ywith power and great glory. 28 Now when these things begin to take place, straighten up and zraise your heads, because ayour redemption is drawing near.”
29 And he told them a parable: “Look at the fig tree, and all the trees. 30 As soon as they come out in leaf, you see bfor yourselves and know that the summer is already near. 31 So also, when you see these things taking place, you know that the kingdom of God is near. 32 cTruly, I say to you, this generation will not pass away until all has taken place. 33 dHeaven and earth will pass away, but emy words will not pass away.
34 “But watch yourselves flest gyour hearts be weighed down with dissipation and drunkenness and hcares of this life, and ithat day come upon you suddenly jlike a trap. 35 For it will come upon all who dwell on the face of the whole earth. 36 But kstay awake at all times, lpraying that you may mhave strength to escape all these things that are going to take place, and nto stand before the Son of Man.”
37 And oevery day he was teaching in the temple, but pat night he went out and lodged on qthe mount called Olivet. 38 And early in the morning oall the people came to him in the temple to hear him.
22 rNow the Feast of Unleavened Bread drew near, which is called sthe Passover. 2 And the chief priests and the scribes twere seeking how to put him to death, for they feared the people.
3 uThen vSatan entered into wJudas called Iscariot, who was of the number of the twelve. 4 He went away and conferred with the chief priests and xofficers how he might betray him to them. 5 And they were glad, and agreed to give him money. 6 So he consented and sought an opportunity to ybetray him to them in the absence of a crowd.
The Passover with the Disciples
7 zThen came athe day of Unleavened Bread, on which the Passover lamb had to be sacrificed. 8 So Jesus1 sent Peter and John, saying, “Go and prepare the Passover for us, that we may eat it.” 9 They said to him, “Where will you have us prepare it?” 10 He said to them, “Behold, when you have entered the city, a man carrying a jar of water will meet you. Follow him into the house that he enters 11 and tell the master of the house, b‘The Teacher says to you, Where is cthe guest room, where I may eat the Passover with my disciples?’ 12 And he will show you da large upper room furnished; prepare it there.” 13 And they went and found it ejust as he had told them, and they prepared the Passover.
Institution of the Lord’s Supper
14 fAnd when the hour came, he reclined at table, and the apostles with him. 15 And he said to them, “I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. 16 For I tell you I will not eat it2 guntil it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God.” 17 And he took a cup, and hwhen he had given thanks he said, “Take this, and divide it among yourselves. 18 iFor I tell you that from now on I will not drink of the fruit of the vine guntil the kingdom of God comes.” 19 jAnd he took bread, and hwhen he had given thanks, he broke it and gave it to them, saying, k“This is my body, which is given for you. Do this in remembrance of me.” 20 And likewise the cup after they had eaten, saying, k“This cup that is poured out for you is lthe new mcovenant in my blood.3 21 nBut behold, the hand of him who betrays me is owith me on the table. 22 For the Son of Man goes pas it has been determined, but woe to that man by whom he is betrayed!” 23 And they began to question one another, which of them it could be who was going to do this.
24 qA dispute also arose among them, as to which of them was to be regarded as the greatest. 25 rAnd he said to them, “The kings of the Gentiles sexercise lordship over them, and those in authority over them are called benefactors. 26 tBut not so with you. Rather, let sthe greatest among you become as the youngest, and the leader as one who serves. 27 For who is the greater, uone who reclines at table or one who serves? Is it not the one who reclines at table? But vI am among you as the one who serves.
28 “You are those who have stayed with me win my trials, 29 and xI assign to you, as my Father assigned to me, a kingdom, 30 ythat you may eat and drink at my table in my kingdom and zsit on thrones judging athe twelve tribes of Israel.
Jesus Foretells Peter’s Denial
31 “Simon, Simon, behold, bSatan demanded to have you,4 cthat he might sift you like wheat, 32 but dI have prayed for you that your faith may not fail. And when you have turned again, estrengthen your brothers.” 33 Peter5 said to him, “Lord, I am ready to go with you both fto prison and gto death.” 34 hJesus6 said, “I tell you, Peter, the rooster will not crow this day, until you deny three times that you know me.”
Scripture Must Be Fulfilled in Jesus
35 And he said to them, i“When I sent you out with no moneybag or knapsack or sandals, did you lack anything?” They said, “Nothing.” 36 He said to them, “But now let the one who has a moneybag take it, and likewise a knapsack. And let the one who has no sword sell his cloak and buy one. 37 For I tell you that jthis Scripture must be fulfilled in me: k‘And he was numbered with the transgressors.’ For lwhat is written about me has its fulfillment.” 38 And they said, “Look, Lord, here are two mswords.” And he said to them, n“It is enough.”
Jesus Prays on the Mount of Olives
39 oAnd he came out and went, pas was his custom, to qthe Mount of Olives, and the disciples followed him. 40 rAnd when he came to sthe place, he said to them, t“Pray that you may not uenter into temptation.” 41 And he withdrew from them about a stone’s throw, and vknelt down and prayed, 42 saying, w“Father, if you are willing, remove xthis cup from me. yNevertheless, not my will, but yours, be done.” 43 And there appeared to him zan angel from heaven, strengthening him. 44 And wbeing in agony he prayed more earnestly; and his sweat became like great drops of blood falling down to the ground.7 45 And when he rose from prayer, he came to the disciples and found them sleeping for sorrow, 46 and he said to them, “Why are you sleeping? Rise and apray that you may not enter into temptation.”
47 bWhile he was still speaking, there came a crowd, and the man called cJudas, one of the twelve, was leading them. He drew near to Jesus to kiss him, 48 but Jesus said to him, “Judas, would you betray the Son of Man with a kiss?” 49 And when those who were around him saw what would follow, they said, “Lord, shall we strike dwith the sword?” 50 And one of them struck the servant8 of the high priest and cut off his right ear. 51 But Jesus said, “No more of this!” And he touched his ear and healed him. 52 Then Jesus said to the chief priests and eofficers of the temple and elders, who had come out against him, “Have you come out as against a robber, with swords and clubs? 53 When fI was with you day after day in the temple, you did not lay hands on me. But this is gyour hour, and hthe power of darkness.”
54 iThen they seized him and led him away, bringing him into the high priest’s house, jand Peter was following at a distance. 55 kAnd when they had kindled a fire in the middle of lthe courtyard and sat down together, Peter sat down among them. 56 Then a servant girl, seeing him as he sat in the light and looking closely at him, said, “This man also was with him.” 57 But he denied it, saying, “Woman, I do not know him.” 58 And a little later someone else saw him and said, “You also are one of them.” But Peter said, “Man, I am not.” 59 And after an interval of about an hour still another minsisted, saying, “Certainly this man also was with him, for he too is a Galilean.” 60 But Peter said, “Man, I do not know what you are talking about.” And immediately, while he was still speaking, the rooster crowed. 61 And the Lord turned and nlooked at Peter. And Peter remembered the saying of the Lord, how he had said to him, o“Before the rooster crows today, you will pdeny me three times.” 62 And he went out and wept bitterly.
63 qNow the men who were holding Jesus in custody were mocking him as they beat him. 64 qThey also blindfolded him and kept asking him, r“Prophesy! rWho is it that struck you?” 65 And they said many other things against him, sblaspheming him.
66 tWhen day came, uthe assembly of the elders of the people gathered together, both chief priests and scribes. And they led him away to their vcouncil, and they wsaid, 67 x“If you are ythe Christ, tell us.” But he said to them, “If I tell you, you will not believe, 68 and if I ask you, you will not answer. 69 But from now on the Son of Man shall be seated zat the right hand of the power of God.” 70 So they all said, “Are you athe Son of God, then?” And he said to them, b“You say that I am.” 71 Then they said, “What further testimony do we need? We have heard it ourselves from his own lips.”
23 cThen the whole company of them arose and brought him before Pilate. 2 And they began to accuse him, saying, “We found this man dmisleading our nation and eforbidding us to give tribute to fCaesar, and saying that he himself is Christ, ga king.” 3 hAnd Pilate asked him, i“Are you the King of the Jews?” And he answered him, j“You have said so.” 4 Then Pilate said to the chief priests and the crowds, k“I find no guilt in this man.” 5 But they were urgent, saying, “He stirs up the people, teaching throughout all Judea, lfrom Galilee even to this place.”
6 When Pilate heard this, he asked whether the man was a Galilean. 7 And when he learned that he belonged to mHerod’s jurisdiction, he sent him over to Herod, who was himself in Jerusalem at that time. 8 When Herod saw Jesus, he was very glad, nfor he had long desired to see him, obecause he had heard about him, and he was hoping pto see some sign done by him. 9 So he questioned him at some length, but he made no answer. 10 The chief priests and the scribes stood by, vehemently accusing him. 11 And Herod with his soldiers qtreated him with contempt and rmocked him. Then, sarraying him in splendid clothing, he sent him back to Pilate. 12 And tHerod and Pilate became friends with each other that very day, for before this they had been at enmity with each other.
13 Pilate then called together the chief priests and uthe rulers and the people, 14 and said to them, “You brought me this man vas one who was misleading the people. And wafter examining him before you, behold, I xdid not find this man guilty of any of your charges against him. 15 Neither did Herod, for yhe sent him back to us. Look, nothing deserving death has been done by him. 16 zI will therefore punish and release him.”1
Pilate Delivers Jesus to Be Crucified
18 aBut they all cried out together, b“Away with this man, and release to us Barabbas”— 19 a man who had been thrown into prison for an insurrection started in the city and cfor murder. 20 Pilate addressed them once more, desiring to release Jesus, 21 but they kept shouting, “Crucify, crucify him!” 22 A third time he said to them, “Why? dWhat evil has he done? eI have found in him no guilt deserving death. fI will therefore punish and release him.” 23 But they were urgent, demanding with loud cries that he should be crucified. And their voices prevailed. 24 So Pilate decided that their demand should be granted. 25 He released the man who had been thrown into prison gfor insurrection and murder, for whom they asked, hbut he delivered Jesus over to their will.
26 iAnd as they led him away, they seized one Simon of Cyrene, who was coming in from the country, and laid on him the cross, to carry it behind Jesus. 27 And there followed him a great multitude of the people and of women who were jmourning and lamenting for him. 28 But turning to them Jesus said, “Daughters of Jerusalem, do not weep for me, but weep for yourselves and for your children. 29 For behold, kthe days are coming when they will say, l‘Blessed are the barren and the wombs that never bore and the breasts that never nursed!’ 30 mThen they will begin to say to the mountains, ‘Fall on us,’ and to the hills, ‘Cover us.’ 31 For nif they do these things when othe wood is green, what will happen owhen it is dry?”
32 pTwo others, who were criminals, were led away to be put to death with him. 33 qAnd when they came to the place that is called The Skull, there they crucified him, and the criminals, pone on his right and one on his left. 34 And Jesus said, “Father, rforgive them, sfor they know not what they do.”2 And they cast lots tto divide his garments. 35 And uthe people stood by, watching, vbut wthe rulers xscoffed at him, saying, y“He saved others; zlet him save himself, aif he is bthe Christ of God, chis Chosen One!” 36 The soldiers also mocked him, coming up and doffering him sour wine 37 and saying, e“If you are fthe King of the Jews, save yourself!” 38 gThere was also an inscription over him,3 “This is fthe King of the Jews.”
39 hOne of the criminals who were hanged irailed at him,4 saying, “Are you not jthe Christ? Save yourself and us!” 40 But the other rebuked him, saying, “Do you not fear God, since you are under the same sentence of condemnation? 41 And we indeed justly, for we are receiving the due reward of our deeds; but this man has done nothing wrong.” 42 And he said, “Jesus, remember me kwhen you come into your kingdom.” 43 And he said to him, “Truly, I say to you, today you will be with me in lparadise.”
44 mIt was now about the sixth hour,5 and there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour,6 45 while the sun’s light failed. And nthe curtain of the temple was torn in two. 46 Then Jesus, ocalling out with a loud voice, said, “Father, pinto your hands I qcommit my spirit!” And having said this rhe breathed his last. 47 Now swhen the centurion saw what had taken place, the praised God, saying, “Certainly this man was innocent!” 48 And all the crowds that had assembled for this spectacle, when they saw what had taken place, returned home ubeating their breasts. 49 And all vhis acquaintances and wthe women who had followed him from Galilee xstood at a distance watching these things.
50 yNow there was a man named Joseph, from the Jewish town of Arimathea. He was a member of the council, a good and righteous man, 51 who had not consented to their decision and action; and he zwas looking for the kingdom of God. 52 This man went to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus. 53 Then he took it down and wrapped it in a linen shroud and alaid him in a tomb cut in stone, bwhere no one had ever yet been laid. 54 It was the day of cPreparation, and the Sabbath was beginning.7 55 dThe women ewho had come with him from Galilee followed and saw the tomb and how his body was laid. 56 Then they returned and fprepared spices and ointments.
On the Sabbath they rested gaccording to the commandment.
24 hBut on the first day of the week, at early dawn, they went to the tomb, itaking the spices they had prepared. 2 And they found jthe stone rolled away from the tomb, 3 but when they went in they did not find the body of the Lord Jesus. 4 While they were perplexed about this, behold, ktwo lmen stood by them in dazzling apparel. 5 And as they were mfrightened and bowed their faces to the ground, the men said to them, “Why do you seek the living among the dead? 6 He is not here, but has risen. Remember how he told you, nwhile he was still in Galilee, 7 nthat the Son of Man omust be delivered into the hands of sinful men and pbe crucified and on qthe third day rise.” 8 And rthey remembered his words, 9 and returning from the tomb they stold all these things to the eleven and to all the rest. 10 Now it was tMary Magdalene and uJoanna and Mary the mother of James and the other women with them who told these things to the apostles, 11 but these words seemed to them an idle tale, and vthey did not believe them. 12 But wPeter rose and ran to the tomb; stooping and looking in, he saw xthe linen cloths by themselves; and he went home marveling at what had happened.
13 That very day ytwo of them were going to a village named Emmaus, about seven miles1 from Jerusalem, 14 and they were talking with each other about all these things that had happened. 15 While they were talking and discussing together, Jesus himself drew near and went with them. 16 zBut their eyes were kept from recognizing him. 17 And he said to them, “What is this conversation that you are holding with each other as you walk?” And they stood still, looking sad. 18 Then one of them, named Cleopas, answered him, “Are you the only visitor to Jerusalem who does not know the things that have happened there in these days?” 19 And he said to them, “What things?” And they said to him, “Concerning Jesus of Nazareth, a man who was aa prophet bmighty in deed and word before God and all the people, 20 and chow our chief priests and drulers delivered him up to be condemned to death, and crucified him. 21 But we had hoped that he was ethe one to redeem Israel. Yes, and besides all this, it is now fthe third day since these things happened. 22 Moreover, some women of our company amazed us. gThey were at the tomb early in the morning, 23 and hwhen they did not find his body, they came back saying that ithey had even seen a vision of angels, who said that he was alive. 24 jSome of those who were with us went to the tomb and found it just as the women had said, but him they did not see.” 25 And he said to them, “O foolish ones, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken! 26 kWas it not necessary that lthe Christ should suffer these things and enter into mhis glory?” 27 And nbeginning with oMoses and pall the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself.
28 So they drew near to the village to which they were going. qHe acted as if he were going farther, 29 but they urged him strongly, saying, “Stay with us, for it is toward evening and rthe day is now far spent.” So he went in to stay with them. 30 When he was at table with them, he took the bread and sblessed and broke it and gave it to them. 31 tAnd their eyes were opened, and they recognized him. And uhe vanished from their sight. 32 They said to each other, v“Did not our hearts burn within us while he talked to us on the road, while he wopened to us the Scriptures?” 33 And they rose that same hour and returned to Jerusalem. And they xfound the eleven and ythose who were with them gathered together, 34 saying, “The Lord has risen indeed, and zhas appeared to Simon!” 35 Then they told what had happened on the road, and ahow he was known to them in bthe breaking of the bread.
Jesus Appears to His Disciples
36 As they were talking about these things, cJesus himself stood among them, and said to them, “Peace to you!” 37 But they were dstartled and efrightened and fthought they saw a spirit. 38 And he said to them, “Why are you troubled, and why do doubts arise in your hearts? 39 See my hands and my feet, that it is I myself. gTouch me, and see. For a spirit does not have flesh and bones as you see that I have.” 40 And when he had said this, hhe showed them his hands and his feet. 41 And while they still disbelieved ifor joy and were marveling, jhe said to them, “Have you anything here to eat?” 42 They gave him a piece of broiled fish,2 43 and he took it and ate before them.
44 Then he said to them, k“These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, lthat everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.” 45 Then mhe opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, 46 and said to them, “Thus nit is written, othat the Christ should suffer and on the third day prise from the dead, 47 and that qrepentance for3 the forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed rin his name sto all nations, tbeginning from Jerusalem. 48 uYou are witnesses of these things. 49 And behold, I am sending vthe promise of my Father upon you. But stay in the city until you ware clothed with xpower yfrom on high.”
50 And zhe led them out as far as aBethany, and lifting up his hands he blessed them. 51 While he blessed them, bhe parted from them and was carried up into heaven. 52 And they cworshiped him and zreturned to Jerusalem dwith great joy, 53 and ewere continually in the temple fblessing God.
Introduction
The Gospel of John was written to persuade people to believe in Jesus (20:30–31). The opening verses declare that Jesus is God, stressing his unique relationship with God the Father. The book focuses on seven of Jesus’ signs (miracles), to show his divinity. Jesus called people to believe in him, promising eternal life. He proved he could give life by raising Lazarus (ch. 11) and by his own death and resurrection. John features Christ’s seven “I am” statements, his encounters with Nicodemus and the Samaritan woman, his Upper Room teachings and washing of the disciples’ feet (chs. 13–16), and his high priestly prayer (ch. 17). It includes the most well-known summary of the gospel (3:16). The author was probably the apostle John, writing about a.d. 85.
1 aIn the beginning was bthe Word, and cthe Word was with God, and dthe Word was God. 2 He was in the beginning with God. 3 eAll things were made through him, and without him was not any thing made that was made. 4 fIn him was life,1 and gthe life was the light of men. 5 hThe light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it.
6 There was a man isent from God, whose name was jJohn. 7He came as a kwitness, to bear witness about the light, lthat all might believe through him. 8 mHe was not the light, but came to bear witness about the light.
9 nThe true light, which gives light to everyone, was coming into the world. 10 He was in the world, and the world was made through him, yet othe world did not know him. 11 He came to phis own,2 and qhis own people3 rdid not receive him. 12 But to all who did receive him, swho believed in his name, the gave the right uto become vchildren of God, 13 who wwere born, xnot of blood ynor of the will of the flesh nor of the will of man, but of God.
14 And zthe Word abecame flesh and bdwelt among us, cand we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son4 from the Father, full of dgrace and etruth. 15 (fJohn bore witness about him, and cried out, “This was he of whom I said, g‘He who comes after me ranks before me, because he was before me.’ ”) 16 For from hhis fullness we have all received, igrace upon grace.5 17 For jthe law was given through Moses; kgrace and truth came through Jesus Christ. 18 lNo one has ever seen God; mthe only God,6 who is at the Father’s side,7 nhe has made him known.
The Testimony of John the Baptist
19 And this is the otestimony of John, when the Jews sent priests and Levites from Jerusalem to ask him, p“Who are you?” 20 qHe confessed, and did not deny, but confessed, “I am not the Christ.” 21 And they asked him, “What then? rAre you Elijah?” He said, “I am not.” “Are you sthe Prophet?” And he answered, “No.” 22 So they said to him, “Who are you? We need to give an answer to those who sent us. What do you say about yourself?” 23 He said, “I am tthe voice of one crying out in the wilderness, ‘Make straight8 the way of the Lord,’ as the prophet Isaiah said.”
24 (Now they had been sent from the Pharisees.) 25 They asked him, u“Then why are you baptizing, if you are neither the Christ, nor Elijah, nor the Prophet?” 26 John answered them, v“I baptize with water, but among you stands one you do not know, 27 even whe who comes after me, the strap of whose sandal I am not worthy to untie.” 28 These things took place in Bethany across the Jordan, where John was baptizing.
29 The next day he saw Jesus coming toward him, and said, “Behold, xthe Lamb of God, who ytakes away the sin zof the world! 30 This is he of whom I said, a‘After me comes a man who ranks before me, because he was before me.’ 31 I myself did not know him, but bfor this purpose I came baptizing with water, that he might be revealed to Israel.” 32 And John cbore witness: d“I saw the Spirit descend from heaven like a dove, and eit remained on him. 33 I myself did not know him, but fhe who sent me to baptize gwith water said to me, ‘He on whom you see the Spirit descend and remain, hthis is he who baptizes gwith the Holy Spirit.’ 34 And I have seen and have borne witness that this is the Son9 of God.”
Jesus Calls the First Disciples
35 The next day again John was standing with two of his disciples, 36 and he looked at Jesus as he walked by and said, “Behold, ithe Lamb of God!” 37 The two disciples heard him say this, and they followed Jesus. 38 Jesus turned and saw them following and said to them, j“What are you seeking?” And they said to him, k“Rabbi” (which means Teacher), “where are you staying?” 39 He said to them, “Come and you will see.” So they came and saw where he was staying, and they stayed with him that day, for it was about the tenth hour.10 40 lOne of the two who heard John speak and followed Jesus11 was Andrew, Simon Peter’s brother. 41 He first found his own brother Simon and said to him, “We have found mthe Messiah” (which means Christ). 42 He brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, “You are Simon the son of nJohn. You shall be called oCephas” (which means pPeter12).
Jesus Calls Philip and Nathanael
43 qThe next day Jesus decided rto go to Galilee. He found Philip and said to him, “Follow me.” 44 Now sPhilip was from Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter. 45 Philip found tNathanael and said to him, “We have found him of whom uMoses in the Law and also the prophets wrote, Jesus vof Nazareth, wthe son of Joseph.” 46 Nathanael said to him, x“Can anything good come out of Nazareth?” Philip said to him, “Come and see.” 47 Jesus saw Nathanael coming toward him and said of him, “Behold, yan Israelite indeed, zin whom there is no deceit!” 48 Nathanael said to him, “How ado you know me?” Jesus answered him, “Before Philip called you, when you were under the fig tree, I saw you.” 49 Nathanael answered him, b“Rabbi, cyou are the Son of God! You are the dKing of Israel!” 50 Jesus answered him, “Because I said to you, ‘I saw you under the fig tree,’ do you believe? You will see greater things than these.” 51 And he said to him, “Truly, truly, I say to you,13 you will see eheaven opened, and fthe angels of God ascending and descending on gthe Son of Man.”
2 On hthe third day there was a wedding at iCana in Galilee, and the mother of Jesus was there. 2 Jesus also was invited to the wedding with jhis disciples. 3 When the wine ran out, the mother of Jesus said to him, “They have no wine.” 4 And Jesus said to her, k“Woman, lwhat does this have to do with me? mMy hour has not yet come.” 5 His mother said to the servants, “Do whatever he tells you.”
6 Now there were six stone water jars there nfor the Jewish rites of purification, each holding twenty or thirty ogallons.1 7 Jesus said to the servants, “Fill the jars with water.” And they filled them up to the brim. 8 And he said to them, “Now draw some out and take it to the master of the feast.” So they took it. 9 When the master of the feast tasted pthe water now become wine, and did not know where it came from (though the servants who had drawn the water knew), the master of the feast called the bridegroom 10 and said to him, “Everyone serves the good wine first, and when people have drunk freely, then the poor wine. But you have kept the good wine until now.” 11 This, the first of his signs, Jesus did at Cana in Galilee, and manifested qhis glory. And rhis disciples believed in him.
12 After this he went down to Capernaum, with his mother and shis brothers2 and his disciples, and they stayed there for a few days.
13 tThe Passover of the Jews was at hand, and Jesus uwent up to Jerusalem. 14 vIn the temple he found those who were selling oxen and sheep and pigeons, and the money-changers sitting there. 15 And making a whip of cords, he drove them all out of the temple, with the sheep and oxen. And he poured out the coins of the money-changers and overturned their tables. 16 And he told those who sold the pigeons, “Take these things away; do not make wmy Father’s house a house of trade.” 17 His disciples remembered that it was written, x“Zeal for your house will consume me.”
18 So the Jews said to him, y“What sign do you show us for doing these things?” 19 Jesus answered them, z“Destroy this temple, and in three days aI will raise it up.” 20 The Jews then said, “It has taken forty-six years to build this temple,3 and will you raise it up in three days?” 21 But he was speaking about bthe temple of his body. 22 When therefore he was raised from the dead, chis disciples remembered that he had said this, and they believed dthe Scripture and the word that Jesus had spoken.
23 Now when he was in Jerusalem at the Passover Feast, many believed in his name ewhen they saw the signs that he was doing. 24 But Jesus fon his part did not entrust himself to them, because ghe knew all people 25 and needed no one to bear witness about man, for ghe himself knew what was in man.
3 Now there was a man of the Pharisees named hNicodemus, ia ruler of the Jews. 2 This man came to Jesus1 jby night and said to him, k“Rabbi, lwe know that you are a teacher come from God, for no one can do these signs that you do munless God is with him.” 3 Jesus answered him, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is nborn oagain2 he cannot psee the kingdom of God.” 4 Nicodemus said to him, “How can a man be born when he is old? Can he enter a second time into his mother’s womb and be born?” 5 Jesus answered, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born qof water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God. 6 rThat which is born of the flesh is sflesh, and that which is born of the Spirit is spirit.3 7 tDo not marvel that I said to you, ‘You4 must be born uagain.’ 8 vThe wind5 blows wwhere it wishes, and you hear its sound, but you do not know where it comes from or where it goes. So it is with everyone who is born of the Spirit.”
9 Nicodemus said to him, x“How can these things be?” 10 Jesus answered him, “Are you the teacher of Israel yand yet you do not understand these things? 11 Truly, truly, I say to you, zwe speak of what we know, and bear witness to what we have seen, but zyou6 do not receive our testimony. 12 If I have told you earthly things and you do not believe, how can you believe if I tell you heavenly things? 13 aNo one has bascended into heaven except che who descended from heaven, the Son of Man.7 14 And das Moses lifted up the serpent in the wilderness, so must the Son of Man ebe lifted up, 15 that whoever believes fin him gmay have eternal life.8
16 “For hGod so loved ithe world,9 jthat he gave his only Son, that whoever believes in him should not kperish but have eternal life. 17 For lGod did not send his Son into the world mto condemn the world, but in order that the world might be saved through him. 18 nWhoever believes in him is not condemned, but whoever does not believe is condemned already, because he has not obelieved in the name of the only Son of God. 19 pAnd this is the judgment: qthe light has come into the world, and rpeople loved the darkness rather than the light because stheir works were evil. 20 tFor everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, ulest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever vdoes what is true wcomes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God.”
John the Baptist Exalts Christ
22 After this Jesus and his disciples went into the Judean countryside, and he remained there with them and xwas baptizing. 23 John also was baptizing at Aenon near Salim, because water was plentiful there, and people were coming and being baptized 24 (for yJohn had not yet been put in prison).
25 Now a discussion arose between some of John’s disciples and a Jew over zpurification. 26 And they came to John and said to him, a“Rabbi, he who was with you across the Jordan, bto whom you bore witness—look, he is baptizing, and call are going to him.” 27 John answered, d“A person cannot receive even one thing eunless it is given him ffrom heaven. 28 You yourselves bear me witness, that I said, g‘I am not the Christ, but hI have been sent before him.’ 29 iThe one who has the bride is the bridegroom. jThe friend of the bridegroom, who stands and hears him, krejoices greatly at the bridegroom’s voice. Therefore this joy of mine is now complete. 30 lHe must increase, but I must decrease.”10
31 mHe who comes from above nis above all. He who is of the earth belongs to the earth and ospeaks in an earthly way. pHe who comes from heaven nis above all. 32 qHe bears witness to what he has seen and heard, ryet no one receives his testimony. 33 Whoever receives his testimony ssets his seal to this, tthat God is true. 34 For he whom uGod has sent utters the words of God, for he gives the Spirit vwithout measure. 35 wThe Father loves the Son and xhas given all things into his hand. 36 yWhoever believes in the Son has eternal life; zwhoever does not obey the Son shall not asee life, but the wrath of God remains on him.
Jesus and the Woman of Samaria
4 Now when Jesus learned that the Pharisees had heard that Jesus was making and bbaptizing more disciples than John 2(although Jesus himself did not baptize, but only his disciples), 3 he left Judea and departed cagain for Galilee. 4 dAnd he had to pass through Samaria. 5 So he came to a town of Samaria called Sychar, near the field ethat Jacob had given to his son Joseph. 6 Jacob’s well was there; so Jesus, fwearied as he was from his journey, was sitting beside the well. It was about the sixth hour.1
7 A woman from Samaria came to draw water. Jesus said to her, f“Give me a drink.” 8 (For his disciples had gone away into the city to buy food.) 9 The Samaritan woman said to him, “How is it that you, a Jew, ask for a drink from me, a woman of Samaria?” (gFor Jews have no dealings with Samaritans.) 10 Jesus answered her, “If you knew the gift of God, and who it is that is saying to you, ‘Give me a drink,’ you would have asked him, and he would have given you hliving water.” 11 The woman said to him, “Sir, you have nothing to draw water with, and the well is deep. Where do you get that living water? 12 iAre you greater than our father Jacob? jHe gave us the well and drank from it himself, as did his sons and his livestock.” 13 Jesus said to her, “Everyone who drinks of this water will be thirsty again, 14 but kwhoever drinks of the water that I will give him lwill never be thirsty again.2 The water that I will give him will become min him a spring of water welling up to eternal life.” 15 The woman said to him, “Sir, ngive me this water, so that I will not be thirsty or have to come here to draw water.”
16 Jesus said to her, “Go, ocall your husband, and come here.” 17 The woman answered him, “I have no husband.” Jesus said to her, “You are right in saying, ‘I have no husband’; 18 for you have had five husbands, and the one you now have is not your husband. What you have said is true.” 19 The woman said to him, “Sir, I perceive that pyou are qa prophet. 20 rOur fathers worshiped on sthis mountain, but you say that tin Jerusalem is uthe place where people ought to worship.” 21 Jesus said to her, v“Woman, believe me, wthe hour is coming when xneither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem will you worship the Father. 22 yYou worship what you do not know; zwe worship what we know, for zsalvation is afrom the Jews. 23 But bthe hour is coming, and is now here, when the true worshipers will worship the Father cin spirit and dtruth, for the Father eis seeking such people to worship him. 24 God is spirit, and those who worship him must worship in spirit and truth.” 25 The woman said to him, “I know that fMessiah is coming (he who is called Christ). When he comes, ghe will tell us all things.” 26 Jesus said to her, h“I who speak to you am he.”
27 Just then ihis disciples came back. They marveled that he was talking with a woman, but no one said, “What do you seek?” or, “Why are you talking with her?” 28 So the woman left her water jar and went away into town and said to the people, 29 “Come, see a man jwho told me all that I ever did. Can this be the Christ?” 30 They went out of the town and were coming to him.
31 Meanwhile the disciples were urging him, saying, k“Rabbi, eat.” 32 But he said to them, “I have food to eat that you do not know about.” 33 So the disciples said to one another, l“Has anyone brought him something to eat?” 34 Jesus said to them, m“My food is nto do the will of him who sent me and oto accomplish his work. 35 Do you not say, ‘There are yet four months, then comes the harvest’? Look, I tell you, lift up your eyes, and see that pthe fields are white for harvest. 36 Already the one who reaps is receiving wages and gathering fruit for eternal life, so that qsower and rreaper smay rejoice together. 37 For here the saying holds true, t‘One sows and another reaps.’ 38 I sent you to reap uthat for which you did not labor. Others have labored, vand you have entered into their labor.”
39 Many Samaritans wfrom that town believed in him xbecause of ythe woman’s testimony, “He told me all that I ever did.” 40 So when the Samaritans came to him, they asked him to stay with them, and he stayed there two days. 41 And many more believed zbecause of his word. 42 They said to the woman, “It is no longer because of what you said that we believe, for we have heard for ourselves, aand we know that this is indeed bthe Savior cof the world.”
43 After dthe two days he departed for Galilee. 44 (For Jesus himself had testified ethat a prophet has no honor in his own hometown.) 45 So when he came to Galilee, the Galileans welcomed him, fhaving seen all that he had done in Jerusalem at the feast. For gthey too had gone to the feast.
46 So he came again to hCana in Galilee, iwhere he had made the water wine. And at Capernaum there was an official whose son was ill. 47 When this man heard that Jesus jhad come from Judea to Galilee, he went to him and asked him to come down and heal his son, for he was at the point of death. 48 So Jesus said to him, k“Unless you3 see signs and wonders you will not believe.” 49 The official said to him, “Sir, come down lbefore my child dies.” 50 Jesus said to him, “Go; your son will live.” The man believed the word that Jesus spoke to him and went on his way. 51 As he was going down, his servants4 met him and told him that his son was recovering. 52 So he asked them the hour when he began to get better, and they said to him, “Yesterday at the seventh hour5 the fever left him.” 53 The father knew that was the hour when Jesus had said to him, “Your son will live.” And he himself believed, mand all his household. 54 nThis was now the second sign that Jesus did when he had come from Judea to Galilee.
The Healing at the Pool on the Sabbath
5 After this there was a ofeast of the Jews, and Jesus went up to Jerusalem.
2 Now there is in Jerusalem by pthe Sheep Gate a pool, in Aramaic1 called Bethesda,2 which has five roofed colonnades. 3 In these lay a multitude of invalids—blind, lame, and qparalyzed.3 5 One man was there who had been an invalid for thirty-eight years. 6 When Jesus saw him lying there and knew that he had already been there a long time, he said to him, “Do you want to be healed?” 7 The sick man answered him, “Sir, I have no one to put me into the pool when the water is stirred up, and while I am going another steps down before me.” 8 Jesus said to him, r“Get up, take up your bed, and walk.” 9 rAnd at once the man was healed, and he took up his bed and walked.
sNow that day was the Sabbath. 10 So the Jews4 said to the man who had been healed, “It is the Sabbath, and tit is not lawful for you to take up your bed.” 11 But he answered them, “The man who healed me, that man said to me, ‘Take up your bed, and walk.’ ” 12 They asked him, “Who is the man who said to you, ‘Take up your bed and walk’?” 13 Now the man who had been healed did not know who it was, for uJesus had withdrawn, as there was a crowd in the place. 14 Afterward Jesus found him in the temple and said to him, “See, you are well! vSin no more, wthat nothing worse may happen to you.” 15 The man went away and told the Jews that it was Jesus who had healed him. 16 And this was why the Jews xwere persecuting Jesus, ybecause he was doing these things on the Sabbath. 17 But Jesus answered them, “My Father is working until now, and I am working.”
18 This was why the Jews zwere seeking all the more to kill him, abecause not only was he bbreaking the Sabbath, but he was even calling God chis own Father, dmaking himself equal with God.
19 So Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, ethe Son fcan do nothing of his own accord, but only what he sees the Father doing. For whatever the Father5 does, that the Son does likewise. 20 For gthe Father loves the Son and shows him all that he himself is doing. And hgreater works than these will he show him, so that iyou may marvel. 21 For as the Father jraises the dead and kgives them life, so lalso the Son gives life mto whom he will. 22 nFor the Father judges no one, but ohas given all judgment to the Son, 23 that all may honor the Son, just as they phonor the Father. qWhoever does not honor the Son does not honor the Father who sent him. 24 Truly, truly, I say to you, rwhoever hears my word and sbelieves him who sent me has eternal life. He tdoes not come into judgment, but uhas passed from death to life.
25 “Truly, truly, I say to you, van hour is coming, and is now here, when wthe dead will hear xthe voice of the Son of God, and those who hear wwill live. 26 yFor as the Father has life in himself, zso he has granted the Son also to have life in himself. 27 And he ahas given him authority to execute judgment, because he is the Son of Man. 28 Do not marvel at this, for van hour is coming when ball who are in the tombs will hear his voice 29 and come out, cthose who have done good to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil to the resurrection of judgment.
30 d“I can do nothing on my own. As I hear, I judge, and emy judgment is just, because fI seek not my own will gbut the will of him who sent me. 31 hIf I alone bear witness about myself, my testimony is not true. 32 There is ianother who bears witness about me, and jI know that the testimony that he bears about me is true. 33 kYou sent to John, and he has borne witness to the truth. 34 Not that lthe testimony that I receive is from man, but I say these things so that you may be saved. 35 He was a burning and mshining lamp, and nyou were willing to rejoice for a while in his light. 36 But lthe testimony that I have is greater than that of John. For othe works that the Father has given me pto accomplish, the very works that I am doing, qbear witness about me that rthe Father has sent me. 37 And the Father who sent me shas himself borne witness about me. His voice you have never heard, this form you have never seen, 38 and uyou do not have his word abiding in you, for you do not believe the one whom he has sent. 39 vYou search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and wit is they that bear witness about me, 40 yet xyou refuse to come to me that you may have life. 41 yI do not receive glory from people. 42 But zI know that you do not have athe love of God within you. 43 I have come bin my Father’s name, and cyou do not receive me. dIf another comes in his own name, you will receive him. 44 How can you believe, when you receive glory from one another and edo not seek the glory that comes from fthe only God? 45 Do not think that I will accuse you to the Father. There is one who accuses you: Moses, gon whom you have set your hope. 46 For if you believed Moses, you would believe me; for hhe wrote of me. 47 But iif you do not believe his writings, how will you believe my words?”
6 After this jJesus went away to the other side of kthe Sea of Galilee, which is lthe Sea of Tiberias. 2 And a large crowd was following him, because they saw the signs that he was doing on the sick. 3 Jesus went up on mthe mountain, and there he sat down with his disciples. 4 Now nthe Passover, the ofeast of the Jews, was at hand. 5 pLifting up his eyes, then, and seeing that a large crowd was coming toward him, Jesus said to qPhilip, “Where are we to buy bread, so that these people may eat?” 6 He said this to test him, for he himself knew what he would do. 7 rPhilip answered him, “Two hundred denarii1 worth of bread would not be enough for each of them to get a little.” 8 One of his disciples, sAndrew, Simon Peter’s brother, said to him, 9 “There is a boy here who has five tbarley loaves and two fish, but twhat are they for so many?” 10 Jesus said, “Have the people sit down.” uNow there was much grass in the place. So the men sat down, about five thousand in number. 11 Jesus then took the loaves, and vwhen he had given thanks, he distributed them to those who were seated. So also the fish, as much as they wanted. 12 And when they had eaten their fill, he told his disciples, “Gather up the leftover fragments, that nothing may be lost.” 13 So they gathered them up and filled twelve baskets with fragments from the five barley loaves left by those who had eaten. 14 When the people saw the sign that he had done, they said, w“This is indeed xthe Prophet ywho is to come into the world!”
15 zPerceiving then that they were about to come and take him by force to make him king, Jesus awithdrew again to bthe mountain by himself.
16 When evening came, his disciples went down to the sea, 17 got into a boat, and started across the sea to Capernaum. It was now dark, and Jesus had not yet come to them. 18 The sea became rough because a strong wind was blowing. 19 When they had rowed about three or four miles,2 they saw Jesus walking on the sea and coming near the boat, and they were frightened. 20 cBut he said to them, “It is I; do not be afraid.” 21 Then they were glad to take him into the boat, and immediately the boat was at the land to which they were going.
22 On the next day the crowd that remained on the other side of the sea saw that there had been only done boat there, and that Jesus had not entered the boat with his disciples, but that his disciples had gone away alone. 23 Other boats from Tiberias came near the place where they had eaten the bread after the Lord ehad given thanks. 24 fSo when the crowd saw that Jesus was not there, nor his disciples, they themselves got into the boats and gwent to Capernaum, seeking Jesus.
25 When they found him on the other side of the sea, they said to him, h“Rabbi, when did you come here?” 26 Jesus answered them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, iyou are seeking me, not because you saw jsigns, but because you ate your fill of the loaves. 27 kDo not work for the food that perishes, but for lthe food that endures to eternal life, which mthe Son of Man will give to you. For on nhim God the Father has oset his seal.” 28 Then they said to him, “What must we do, to be doing pthe works of God?” 29 Jesus answered them, “This is the work of God, qthat you believe in him whom rhe has sent.” 30 So they said to him, s“Then what sign do you do, that we may see and believe you? What work do you perform? 31 tOur fathers ate the manna in the wilderness; as it is written, u‘He gave them bread from heaven to eat.’ ” 32 Jesus then said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, it was not Moses who gave you the bread from heaven, but my Father gives you the true bread from heaven. 33 For the bread of God is vhe who comes down from heaven and gives life to the world.” 34 They said to him, w“Sir, give us this bread always.”
35 Jesus said to them, x“I am the bread of life; ywhoever comes to me shall not hunger, and whoever believes in me shall never thirst. 36 But I said to you that you have seen me and yet do not believe. 37 zAll that athe Father gives me will come to me, and bwhoever comes to me I will never cast out. 38 For cI have come down from heaven, not to do dmy own will but dthe will of him ewho sent me. 39 And fthis is the will of him who sent me, gthat I should lose nothing of hall that he has given me, but iraise it up on the last day. 40 For this is the will of my Father, that everyone who jlooks on the Son and kbelieves in him lshould have eternal life, and I will raise him up on the last day.”
41 So the Jews grumbled about him, because he said, m“I am the bread that came down from heaven.” 42 They said, n“Is not this Jesus, othe son of Joseph, whose father and mother pwe know? How does he now say, ‘I have come down from heaven’?” 43 Jesus answered them, “Do not grumble among yourselves. 44 No one can come to me unless the Father who sent me qdraws him. And rI will raise him up on the last day. 45 It is written in the Prophets, s‘And they will all be ttaught by God.’ uEveryone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me— 46 vnot that anyone has seen the Father except whe who is from God; he xhas seen the Father. 47 Truly, truly, I say to you, ywhoever believes has eternal life. 48 zI am the bread of life. 49 aYour fathers ate the manna in the wilderness, and bthey died. 50 cThis is the bread that comes down from heaven, so that one may eat of it dand not die. 51 I am the living bread ethat came down from heaven. If anyone eats of this bread, he will live forever. And the bread that I will give ffor the life of the world is gmy flesh.”
52 The Jews then hdisputed among themselves, saying, i“How can this man give us his flesh to eat?” 53 So Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, unless you eat the flesh of jthe Son of Man and drink his blood, you khave no life in you. 54 Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood lhas eternal life, and mI will raise him up on the last day. 55 For my flesh is true food, and my blood is true drink. 56 Whoever feeds on my flesh and drinks my blood nabides in me, and I in him. 57 As othe living Father psent me, and qI live because of the Father, so whoever feeds on me, he also will live because of me. 58 rThis is the bread that came down from heaven, not like the bread3 the fathers ate, and died. Whoever feeds on this bread will live forever.” 59 Jesus4 said these things in the synagogue, as he taught sat Capernaum.
60 tWhen many of his disciples heard it, they said, “This is a hard saying; who can listen to it?” 61 But Jesus, vknowing in himself that his disciples were grumbling about this, said to them, “Do you take offense at this? 62 Then what if you were to see wthe Son of Man xascending to ywhere he was before? 63 zIt is the Spirit who gives life; athe flesh is no help at all. bThe words that I have spoken to you are spirit and life. 64 But cthere are some of you who do not believe.” (For Jesus vknew from the beginning who those were who did not believe, and dwho it was who would betray him.) 65 And he said, “This is why I told you ethat no one can come to me unless it is granted him by the Father.”
66 fAfter this many of his disciples turned back and no longer walked with him. 67 So Jesus said to gthe twelve, “Do you want to go away as well?” 68 Simon Peter answered him, “Lord, to whom shall we go? You have hthe words of eternal life, 69 and iwe have believed, and have come to know, that jyou are kthe Holy One of God.” 70 Jesus answered them, l“Did I not choose you, gthe twelve? And yet one of you is ma devil.” 71 He spoke of Judas nthe son of Simon Iscariot, for ohe, one of the twelve, was going to betray him.
7 After this Jesus went about in Galilee. He would not go about in Judea, because pthe Jews1 were seeking to kill him. 2 Now qthe Jews’ Feast of rBooths was at hand. 3 sSo his brothers2 said to him, “Leave here and go to Judea, that your disciples also may see the works you are doing. 4 For no one works in secret if he seeks to be known openly. If you do these things, tshow yourself to the world.” 5 uFor not even vhis brothers believed in him. 6 Jesus said to them, w“My time has not yet come, but your time is always here. 7 The world cannot hate you, but xit hates me because I testify about it that yits works are evil. 8 You go up to the feast. I am not3 going up to this feast, for zmy time has not yet fully come.” 9 After saying this, he remained in Galilee.
10 But after ahis brothers had gone up to the feast, then he also went up, not publicly but in private. 11 bThe Jews cwere looking for him at the feast, and saying, “Where is he?” 12 And there was much dmuttering about him among the people. eWhile some said, “He is a good man,” others said, “No, fhe is leading the people astray.” 13 Yet gfor fear of the Jews no one spoke openly of him.
14 About the middle of the feast Jesus went up hinto the temple and began teaching. 15 The Jews therefore imarveled, saying, “How is it that this man has learning,4 when he has never studied?” 16 So Jesus answered them, j“My teaching is not mine, but his kwho sent me. 17 lIf anyone’s will is to do God’s5 will, mhe will know whether the teaching is from God or whether I nam speaking on my own authority. 18 The one who speaks on his own authority oseeks his own glory; but the one who seeks the glory of him who sent him is true, and in him there is no falsehood. 19 pHas not Moses given you the law? Yet none of you keeps the law. qWhy do you seek to kill me?” 20 The crowd answered, r“You have a demon! Who is seeking to kill you?” 21 Jesus answered them, “I did sone work, and you all marvel at it. 22 tMoses gave you circumcision (not that it is from Moses, but ufrom the fathers), and you circumcise a man on the Sabbath. 23 If on the Sabbath a man receives circumcision, so that the law of Moses may not be broken, vare you angry with me because on the Sabbath I made a man’s whole body well? 24 wDo not judge by appearances, but judge with right judgment.”
25 Some of the people of Jerusalem therefore said, “Is not this the man whom xthey seek to kill? 26 And here he is, yspeaking openly, and they say nothing to him! Can it be that zthe authorities really know that this is the Christ? 27 But awe know bwhere this man comes from, and when the Christ appears, cno one will know where he comes from.” 28 So Jesus proclaimed, das he taught in the temple, a“You know me, and you know where I come from. But eI have not come of my own accord. fHe who sent me is true, gand him you do not know. 29 hI know him, for I come ifrom him, and jhe sent me.” 30 kSo they were seeking to arrest him, but lno one laid a hand on him, mbecause his hour had not yet come. 31 Yet nmany of the people believed in him. They said, o“When the Christ appears, will he do more signs than this man has done?”
32 The Pharisees heard the crowd pmuttering these things about him, and the chief priests and Pharisees sent qofficers to arrest him. 33 Jesus then said, r“I will be with you a little longer, and then sI am going to him who sent me. 34 tYou will seek me and you will not find me. Where I am you cannot come.” 35 The Jews said to one another, “Where does this man intend to go that we will not find him? uDoes he intend to go to vthe Dispersion among wthe Greeks and teach the Greeks? 36 What does he mean by saying, x‘You will seek me and you will not find me,’ and, ‘Where I am you cannot come’?”
37 yOn the last day of the feast, the great day, Jesus stood up and cried out, z“If anyone thirsts, let him acome to me and drink. 38 Whoever believes in me, bas6 the Scripture has said, c‘Out of his heart will flow rivers of dliving water.’ ” 39 Now ethis he said about the Spirit, fwhom those who believed in him were to receive, gfor as yet the Spirit had not been hgiven, ibecause Jesus was not yet glorified.
40 When they heard these words, jsome of the people said, “This really is kthe Prophet.” 41 Others said, “This is lthe Christ.” But some said, m“Is the Christ to come from Galilee? 42 Has not the Scripture said that the Christ comes nfrom the offspring of David, and comes ofrom Bethlehem, the village pwhere David was?” 43 So there was qa division among the people over him. 44 rSome of them wanted to arrest him, but no one laid hands on him.
45 sThe officers then came to the chief priests and Pharisees, who said to them, “Why did you not bring him?” 46 The officers answered, t“No one ever spoke like this man!” 47 The Pharisees answered them, u“Have you also been deceived? 48 vHave any of the authorities or the Pharisees believed in him? 49 But this crowd that does not know the law is accursed.” 50 wNicodemus, who had gone to him before, and who was one of them, said to them, 51 x“Does our law judge a man without first ygiving him a hearing and learning what he does?” 52 They replied, z“Are you from Galilee too? Search and see that ano prophet arises from Galilee.”
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Zoroastrianism A Persian religion founded by the prophet Zoroaster in the late second millennium bc. The religion was popular in the Persian Empire. It features a dualism between good and evil deities.
Sidebars
Overviews
Apocalyptic Literature
Apocalyptic literature takes its name from the Apocalypse, or Revelation, of John in the New Testament. The word “apocalypse” derives from the Greek word for revelation (apokalypsis), although it is reserved for revelations of a decidedly supernatural character—they often take the form of visions, which are then explained to the visionary by an angel. The visions concern heavenly mysteries, such as God’s throne in heaven or the climax of history.
Because the end of history is accompanied by great upheavals, “apocalypse” has come to mean “catastrophe” in modern vernacular. The biblical apocalypses, however, entail a good deal more than destruction. Especially important is the belief in a coming judgment leading to eternal reward or damnation.
The Book of Daniel
The book of Daniel is the only full-fledged apocalyptic writing in the Old Testament. It contains a series of visions (Dan 7–12) that may have been recorded at the time of the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucid Empire in the years 167–164 bc. In Daniel 7, Daniel sees four great beasts coming up out of the sea. These are explained to be the four kingdoms to which the Jews had been subjected, but the book draws its symbols from ancient myths and suggests the beasts are embodiments of primeval chaos. Daniel then sees the Most High depicted as an ancient figure seated on an amazing throne and surrounded by thousands of holy ones or angels. He presides over a judgment, and the fourth kingdom (representing the Greeks or perhaps Rome) is condemned to burn in the fire. Then the kingdom is given to one like a son of man who comes on the clouds—an identification used elsewhere in the ot for Yahweh (e.g., Isa 19:1).
The symbolism and function of Daniel’s visions become more specific in Daniel 10–12. The angel Gabriel appears to Daniel, telling him that he is engaged in a struggle in heaven against the “princes” of Persia and Greece, and that there is no one to help him but “Michael, your prince” (Dan 10:21). He proceeds to tell Daniel what is written in the book of truth—the whole course of history in the Hellenistic period (ca. 330–168 bc) through the persecution of the Jews by King Antiochus IV Epiphanes of Syria. (The book was likely completed before the death of Antiochus Epiphanes in 164 bc.)
The revelation of Daniel concludes by looking beyond history to the resurrection of the dead. Some will rise to eternal life, some to shame and contempt. The “wise” who died for their faith in the time of persecution will shine like the brightness of the heavens, or the firmament; they will become companions to the stars or the host of heaven (Dan 12:1–4). This is a clear reference to resurrection in the Hebrew Bible. In Israelite religion up to this point, salvation primarily meant living long in the promised land and seeing one’s children’s children. After the time of Daniel’s writing—at least in the apocalyptic tradition—salvation meant to live forever with the angels in heaven. Belief in resurrection was especially powerful in times of persecution when people were being killed for keeping their faith.
Other Jewish Apocalyptic Literature
Some of Daniel’s imagery parallels ancient Near Eastern mythology (beasts rising from the sea, the figure riding on the clouds, etc.) and some parallels earlier passages in the Hebrew Bible, especially in the later prophetic passages. A good example is Isaiah 24–27, which says that God will punish Leviathan, the twisting serpent, and will slay the dragon that is in the sea (Isa 27:1). There is no particular story in the Old Testament about Leviathan or the dragon—they are only mentioned in passing or as a general force against Yahweh’s work—but they are featured in Canaanite myths from the second millennium bc.
In addition to Daniel, the cluster of extra-biblical writings known collectively as 1 Enoch also illustrates individual judgment and afterlife. In Genesis, Enoch is among the seventh generation after Adam, before the flood. He was said to walk with God, and Genesis 5:24 says God “took” Enoch, likely meaning that Enoch ascended to heaven while still alive. He was, then, uniquely placed to reveal the mysteries of heaven. Dated from the second century bc, the collective writings known as 1 Enoch describe both the mysteries of the universe and the whole course of history, from creation to the final judgment.
Jewish apocalyptic writings can be divided broadly into two types: first, historical apocalypses, typified by Daniel, which are concerned with the course of history and its final resolution. Then there are otherworldly journeys, mainly heavenly ascents, in which the visionary passes through the heavens and sees the abodes of the dead. The Book of the Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36) is a prime example of this type of apocalypse.
Another cluster of apocalypses (e.g., the extra-biblical books 2 Esdras and 2 Baruch) appeared in the period immediately after the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans. In these revelations, consolation comes from the hope that Rome will eventually be overthrown, Jerusalem restored, and the righteous freed to enjoy eternal life in heaven. Most of these apocalypses were not preserved in the Jewish tradition, but they survived in Greek, Latin, Syriac, or Ethiopic translations. Many more Jewish apocalypses likely existed that were not translated and did not survive. Fragments of the books of Enoch in Aramaic were found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, as were fragments of several other apocalyptic writings that were previously unknown. Moreover, the Dead Sea Scrolls show that apocalyptic ideas—such as the expectation of a war between the good and evil—were widespread even if they were not expressed in writings formally recognized as apocalypses.
Early Christianity, Revelation, and the Gospels
To a great degree, these apocalyptic writings provide context for the writings and beliefs of early Christianity. Belief in the resurrection of Jesus Christ, for instance, was crucial for the development of Christianity. Yet, as Paul makes clear, “If there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been raised either” (1 Cor 15:13). The belief that Jesus was resurrected builds on the apocalyptic view of the end of history. Christ was the firstfruit of the resurrection, the beginning of the general resurrection. Paul expected that when Christ returned, those who were left alive would be caught up to meet Him in the air (1 Thess 4:17).
By far the most elaborate apocalyptic writing in the nt is the book of Revelation, which includes a series of revelations received by John of Patmos. Some of the imagery derives from Daniel. John sees a beast rising from the sea (Rev 13:1) and another from the earth. For John, the beasts represent the Roman Empire, which is also symbolized by the great prostitute of Babylon, riding on a beast, in Revelation 17. In Revelation 19, however, Christ appears from heaven, riding a white horse and wielding a sword from his mouth (Rev 19:11–15). Satan is imprisoned for 1,000 years (Rev 20:2), and the righteous dead are raised to reign on earth for the same period (Rev 20:4–5). At the end of this period, Satan is released temporarily (Rev 20:7)—before his end in the lake of fire (Rev 20:10)—and all the dead are raised for judgment (Rev 20:12). Death and Hades, the underworld, are thrown into a lake of fire (Rev 20:14), and a new heaven and a new earth appear (Rev 21:1).
The Gospels suggest that Jesus, like John, was thoroughly apocalyptic. Mark 13 is often called “the little apocalypse.” There, Jesus predicts great upheavals at the end of the age, after which the Son of Man will appear on the clouds. In addition to its appearance in Daniel 7, the motif of the Son of Man sitting on the throne of glory also appears in the Similitudes of Enoch (1 Enoch 37–71), a Jewish apocalypse from the first half of the first century ad. In apocalyptic language, Matthew 16 describes a judgment scene in which Jesus, as the Son of Man, comes again in the glory of God the Father with His angels and offers mercy to those who chose to follow Him (Mt 16:24–28).
—John J. Collins
Further Reading
Daniel, Book of CLBD
Revelation, Book of CLBD
Enoch, First Book of CLBD
Biblical Poetry
In spite of some ambiguity about where to draw the line between Hebrew poetry and prose, traditionally roughly a third of the Old Testament has been categorized as poetry. In addition to Psalms, many of the prophetic books and most Wisdom books are written in poetic form. The books of Song of Songs and Lamentations are also poetic. This overview covers the main features and most common forms of Hebrew poetry as reflected in Psalms, Song of Songs, and Lamentations.
Features of Biblical Poetry
Biblical poetry is characterized by the use of parallelism, a correspondence of related clauses. This tendency to reinforce a phrase by slight modification and repetition is a common feature of biblical style in general, not just poetry; poetic style is characterized by terse, binary sentences with a high degree of parallelism.
The relationship between parallel clauses may be semantic (having to do with meaning), syntactic (having to do with the vocabulary and phrasing), thematic, or a combination of these. The classic types of parallelism are synonymous, antithetic, and synthetic. Synonymous parallelism occurs with two or more clauses that restate essentially the same information. Antithetic parallelism labels clauses that present contrasting content. Synthetic parallelism is a catchall category for instances of parallelism that do not fit either of the other types.
Forms of Biblical Poetry
The poetry found in Psalms and Lamentations may have been used in Israelite worship and follows some fairly consistent patterns. These patterns are commonly called “types,” “genres,” or “forms.” The main forms are lament, thanksgiving, praise, and royal psalms. Some psalms are historical surveys—poetic accounts of God’s interactions with Israel (e.g., Psa 78). Other psalms appear to have functioned as liturgies sung as people entered the temple for worship (e.g., Pss 15; 24). Wisdom psalms praise the benefits of righteous living (e.g., Psa 37).
Lament Psalms
A lament psalm is a cry to God brought on by hardship or despair. Sometimes the complaint is presented on behalf of the entire community, but some complaints are motivated by individual situations. Lament psalms use common themes and stereotypical language to describe the experience of suffering. A typical lament psalm (e.g., Pss 10; 28; 59) may include the following parts (though the sequence and use of each varies): an address to God; a complaint; a request for help; a reason for God to help; a statement of confidence; an assertion of innocence; a confession of sin; and an expression of praise. Sometimes a psalmist insists that his suffering is unjust because he is innocent; in other cases a psalmist confesses that he had sinned but repents. A lament may conclude with a vow of praise—a promise to praise God after deliverance from hardship.
Thanksgiving Psalms
In some ways, a thanksgiving psalm is structured as a continuation or response to a lament. The lament usually ends with a promise to praise God, and the thanksgiving psalm fulfills that promise. Some of the common parts of a thanksgiving psalm parallel segments of a lament psalm. A thanksgiving psalm typically includes a summary of adverse circumstances and a report of God’s deliverance. The lament explains the circumstances and contains a request for God to deliver. The thanksgiving psalm is an expression of praise to God motivated by a particular experience of His grace (e.g., Pss 30; 116; 124). This structural connection with lament distinguishes thanksgiving psalms from psalms of praise.
Praise Psalms
Praise psalms (or hymns) celebrate the human experience of God’s goodness. While thanksgiving psalms tend to offer praise to God for specific answers to prayer, praise psalms are general expressions celebrating God’s attributes and His actions in creation. Enthronement psalms (e.g., Psa 47) and Zion hymns (e.g., Psa 46) are specific types of praise psalms. The former celebrate God as king of Israel and all creation; the latter celebrate God’s choice of Zion as His earthly dwelling place. Praise psalms have a simple format: a call to praise, an expression of praise, and a concluding call to praise (e.g., Pss 8; 29).
Royal Psalms
Royal psalms emphasize the role of a human king as God’s chosen leader for Israel (e.g., Pss 20; 45; 72). These psalms celebrate kingship while presenting the king as dependent on God for success. Royal psalms do not have a typical format or even formulaic phrases, so the identification of a psalm as a royal psalm is based only on whether its content relates to human kingship in some way.
Context and Background
For much of Psalms, the social and historical context of its composition is unknown. Later scribes put headings on many of the psalms to indicate their intended usage, to provide musical notation, or to assign a historical setting. The headings link nearly half of the psalms to King David, and all historical headings associate the psalm with an event from David’s life.
The background of Song of Songs is also unknown. Traditionally the book was associated with Solomon and thought to contain expressions of love between King Solomon and one of his wives. However, the only overt connection with Solomon is the ambiguous opening heading identifying the book as the “greatest song, which belongs to Solomon” (Song 1:1). Further, the Hebrew used in Song of Songs contains significant features of late classical Hebrew, suggesting the book dates to the Persian period or later. Song of Songs differs from all other types of biblical poetry, but it has significant similarities with love poetry known throughout the ancient Near East (see Pope, Song of Songs, 54–85). The question of how poetry celebrating human love and sexuality fits with the rest of the biblical text has motivated theological traditions in both Judaism and Christianity in which the book is read as an allegory of the love between God and His people.
The historical setting for the book of Lamentations is the period of national mourning following the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in 586 bc. The poetry of Lamentations generally follows the lament format but emphasizes the experience of grief on a greater scale. The poet dramatically describes the disaster and attempts to make sense of the horror he has witnessed. Like a lament psalm, Lamentations includes elements expressing hope and confidence that God had not completely abandoned His people despite the crisis they were presently living through.
Theological Themes
Biblical poetry reveals expressions that run the gamut of human emotion—from the depth of despair to the height of happiness. While poetic language employs vivid imagery to describe events or themes of all kinds, most biblical poetry can be organized around two: the experience of human suffering and the assertion of divine kingship.
Human Suffering
The lament psalms, the thanksgiving psalms, and the book of Lamentations reflect the common experience of sin and evil for everyone living in a fallen world. The details change, but the experience is the same. This quality gives biblical poetry a timelessness and near-universal applicability. Everyone, at some point, experiences some unfairness or injustice; everyone comes face to face with sin and its consequences. Since many of the lament psalms are essentially prayers to God for deliverance or forgiveness, these psalms continue to influence how people pray. But these psalms can also be bold expressions of personal torment and despair, revealing that it is healthy to put such feelings into words and also comforting us with the knowledge that others have felt similar pain. Further, it is important to realize that the emphasis on suffering and injustice in many psalms is never the final word.
Divine Kingship
The theme of divine kingship encompasses the ideas of God as a warrior, as the creator, and as a righteous judge. Psalms praising God for His deliverance of Israel (e.g., Psa 78) and expressions of His power over creation (e.g., Psa 104) ultimately celebrate His lordship over the universe. Imagery of God as the divine warrior marching into battle on behalf of His people (e.g., Psa 68) similarly emphasizes His kingship over His chosen ones. Overall, the theme of divine kingship brings hope that someday, God’s reign will be perfectly restored and the circumstances that cause suffering and pain in the world will end.
Biblical Poetry and the New Testament
While poetry is less common in the New Testament, many passages allude to the poetry of the Old Testament. One of the most famous songs of the New Testament—Mary’s “Magnificat” in Luke 1:46–55—closely echoes the language and themes of Hannah’s song in 1 Samuel 2. Both passages address Israel’s need for deliverance and allude to God’s plan to raise up a deliverer. Poetry’s allusiveness—its ability to evoke images and associations—enriched the interpretation of poetry as prophecy, so lines from Psalms are quoted as fulfilled in Jesus’ life just as easily as Isaiah or Jeremiah (e.g., Psa 22:18 in John 19:24 or Psa 109:3 in John 15:25). Royal psalms—like Psalm 2—especially were given new significance when interpreted as references to the Messiah (e.g., Acts 13:33; Heb 5:5). Hebrews 1:5–14 links line after line of Old Testament poetry (including Pss 2:7; 45:6–7; 104:4; and 2 Sam 7:14) to express the Son’s superiority over all other heavenly beings and establish His right to kingship at the right hand of God. The New Testament writers make use of the poetry of the Bible to reveal that the Messiah has come, fulfilling the Old Testament longing for the restored reign of God.
Douglas Mangum
Further Reading
Types of Psalms Table
Parallelism in Hebrew Poetry Table
Poetry, Biblical CLBD
Form Criticism CLBD
Psalms, Book of CLBD
Parallel Love Poetry SS:NTIC
Parallelism DOT:WPW
Poetry, Hebrew NIDBV15
Poetry, Hebrew ISBE
Poetry JE:DRHRLCJPETPD12V
Biblical Theology
Biblical theology is theology drawn from the Bible rather than theology applied to the biblical text. Biblical theology helps Christians understand the broad biblical message, discern developments in the canon—the authoritative collection of Scripture—and see how each particular text fits in with the larger story of Scripture. In studying biblical theology, interpreters are trying to determine across the entire canonical spectrum what the authors of the Bible thought or believed in their own historical contexts.
Historical research plays a significant role in biblical theology, as interpreters focus on understanding what the biblical texts meant for the original author and readers, rather than on the development of doctrine over time (which is called historical theology). Before Christians can apply Scripture accurately to the present or systematize it around various topics, they must first interpret it correctly in its historical context and with its original intended meaning. Biblical theology lays a foundation upon which other fields—such as systematic theology and practical theology—can build.
Issues in Biblical Theology
The question arises as to how readers should arrive at a biblical theology when their presuppositions, theology, and beliefs are drawn from personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and a historical context that differ from those of the original authors. Presuppositions based on tradition, prejudice, or questionable sources should be recognized and checked against the biblical text. Readers should not assume that today’s burning issue was a pressing matter in the first century: Those who assume that their questions and concerns are identical to those of biblical writers often misinterpret the Bible. We should approach the Bible with humility, aware that we have a limited perspective.
Our understanding of the Bible and its theology depends on how we answer various questions, such as: How do the nt writers use the ot? What is the nature of the relationship between the ot and nt? What is the nature of the relationship between Israel and the Church—continuity, discontinuity, or both? Is the Church completely distinct from Israel, a continuation of Israel, or a replacement for Israel? Do the ot promises regarding the restoration of Israel find fulfillment in Jesus and the Church, or do they point ahead to a yet-future fulfillment for ethnic Israel? These questions seem complex, but they help explain why different readers arrive at different conclusions with regard to biblical theology.
Two important questions remain. Does the Bible have a central theme and, if so, what is it? For the ot, the prominent themes are covenant, promise, and the mighty acts of God—or pairs of themes, such as law and promise or creation and covenant. For the nt, proposed major themes include kingdom, gospel, justification, new creation, salvation, eschatology (theology of the end times), and Christology, theology of the person of Christ. For the Bible as a whole, major themes include salvation history, the Messiah, God’s covenant faithfulness, God’s glory, the people of God, and creation and new creation. The difficulty with these proposals is that broad themes (such as God or Christ) are too general to render much interpretive insight, whereas more specific themes are not sufficiently comprehensive. Thus, looking at multiple themes or integrative motifs results in greater understanding of the Bible in its complexity.
The practice of biblical theology also has resulted in greater awareness of the unity and diversity found in the biblical text. An author’s emphasis may have varied depending on the intended situation or the audience. Note the different ways in which Paul and James speak of the relationship between faith and works (compare Rom 3:28; Jas 2:24).
Such diversity has led some to doubt the fundamental unity of the Bible—but upon closer examination, legitimate harmonization is possible. For instance, regarding faith and works, a close study of Romans and James makes clear that Paul and James do not use the terms “faith” and “works” in the same way: Paul stresses that salvation is entirely a work of God, to which people cannot add, whereas James emphasizes the role of works subsequent to salvation. With regard to the differing details of Jesus’ parables in the Synoptic Gospels, it is highly probable that Jesus, as an itinerant Jewish teacher, shared similar stories and teachings at different occasions with different audiences, which may account for some of the diversity exhibited by the Synoptic Gospels. Other apparent discrepancies may be due to variations among manuscripts, differences in genre, lack of scientific and chronological precision among ancient authors, or the development of the Bible’s teaching over the course of the canon.
The diversity of expression in Scripture pales in comparison to the theological unity in the Bible regarding its main themes: God, Christ, creation, covenant, salvation, and so on. These and other themes unify the canon and speak with one voice concerning God’s activity in history and His saving of creation.
The Method of Biblical Theology
Several different methods can be used to understand the Bible on its own terms as well as within its historical context. According to the “systematic” approach, readers focus on the contribution of various biblical writings under broad topical headings, such as “the Christian life,” “ethics,” and “the future.” This allows readers to see how biblical teaching on certain topics unfolds as the storyline of Scripture progresses. The “one author at a time” approach allows readers to focus on the contributions of each biblical author, center on a given theme, and explore its development across the ot and nt. In a “symphonic” approach, readers seek to place the various authors of the nt in dialogue with each other on particular topics such as sin, Christ, or the end times.
Each book of the Bible was written from a particular location, in a particular time period, to a specific audience, with a unique purpose. Detailed analysis focuses on how these differences result in a book’s distinctive contribution. However, biblical theology cannot stop there—the Bible, as divinely inspired Scripture, speaks with a unified voice and purpose. This calls for synthesis: the drawing together of varying contributions into a unified whole. Readers must not be content with having studied the theology of only one author but must understand how that voice fits in with other voices in the authoritative collection of Scripture, or the canon. In order to produce a truly “biblical” theology, the parts of the Bible must be understood in relation to the whole.
The New Testament Use of the Old Testament
How the nt writers use the ot significantly informs the practice of biblical theology. As they interpreted and proclaimed the significance of Jesus’ life, ministry, death, and resurrection, the nt authors drew extensively upon the ot—and thus provides a standard by which to evaluate various biblical theologies. Apart from sustained reference to the nt use of the ot, interpreters are in danger of developing biblical theologies that do not accurately represent the Bible’s own theology.
Doing Biblical Theology
Biblical theology cannot be left exclusively to scholars. The act of putting together what the Bible says makes every Christian a biblical theologian. Determine the focus of your study, whether it’s following a specific theme or author. Identify the relevant passages that relate to your focus using a concordance, study Bible, or Bible dictionary. Study each relevant passage, paying careful attention to the surrounding text and the place of the passage in the broader biblical storyline. Determine, to the best of your ability, what the author meant to communicate to the original audience. Trace the development of a theme through the various biblical books. You can confidently apply the results of your study after you have sufficiently explored the Bible’s teaching on the subject, although you should always be open to the possibility of correction.
Andreas J. Köstenberger
Further Reading
The Formation of the Old Testament
The Formation of the New Testament
The Graeco-Roman Background of the New Testament
The Formation of the New Testament
What we today call the New Testament is composed of a 27-document collection that Christians view as bearing unique authority—along with the Old Testament—as the Word of God. But the reason that this particular collection of documents—from among other Christian writings of the first century—came to be received and accepted by the church as the New Testament canon isn’t immediately clear.
It is necessary to begin with the definition of the word “canon.” A canon is a standard or norm, something against which other things are measured—and as such, it is used in reference to both the Old Testament and New Testament. When we hear the New Testament described as “canon,” it is an acknowledgment that this collection is limited and has authority for the Church.1
The study of the formation of the New Testament canon can be understood largely as an ever-narrowing definition of the term “canon” in reference to Christian writings. Confusion has resulted because not all canon historians understand the term in the same way. This can be seen in the three main answers to how the Church came to accept only the New Testament documents from among other first-century Christian writings.
The first answer was given by Theodore Zahn in the late 19th century, when he argued that the New Testament arose as a spontaneous occurrence. Zahn believed that once a New Testament document was cited by a church father, the document should be seen as canonical—citation proved canonicity. Thus, according to Zahn, by the end of the first century there was already a New Testament in existence that was not forced on the Church, but rather was a spontaneous creation that occurred in the life of the Church.2
Zahn’s position received an important qualification in the early 20th century from Adolf von Harnack, who developed answer number two. Harnack argued that citing a New Testament document as Scripture is very different from simply citing or alluding to New Testament documents; Harnack paid particular attention to the way a document was cited. Whether a citation was preceded by a formula referring to it as “Scripture” became the test for canonicity, because doing so gave the document at the same status as the Old Testament. The effect of this qualification was to move the emergence of a New Testament canon from the first century into the mid- to late second century, when documents attest to citations of New Testament documents as Scripture.3
The third answer to the question was offered by Albert C. Sundberg, Jr. Sundberg continued to narrow the definition of canon in light of his reassessment of the Old Testament canon in early Christianity.4 Sundberg observed that the church fathers cited documents as Scripture that are not known to us as canonical Scripture.5 He concluded that the Church did not receive a closed Old Testament canon but rather they received Scripture moving in the direction of being considered a canon. Because of this, Sundberg believed Harnack’s answer was difficult to sustain. The church fathers cited documents not in the closed Old Testament canon as Scripture. Thus, one cannot claim, as Harnack did, that citation of a document as Scripture proves canonicity. If the Church did not receive a closed Old Testament from Judaism, but rather Scripture on the way to canonization, then the comparison of the citations of Christian literature with Old Testament citations cannot establish canonicity for Christian writings.
Sundberg’s research has led some to agree that an essential distinction be made between the terms “Scripture” and “canon.”6 Sundberg thus argued that “Scripture” should be understood as writings that are held in some sense as authoritative for religion. “Canon,” on the other hand, should be understood as a defined collection that is to be held as exclusively authoritative with respect to all other documents. The issue here is one of anachronism: We should not refer to a document as “canon” that would historically have been referred to as “Scripture.” Thus, we cannot claim canonicity for a New Testament document that is cited with the same formula as an Old Testament document unless we are prepared to say that the church fathers had a larger Old Testament canon than we currently have. Based on these conclusions, Sundberg argues that a New Testament canon did not appear in Christianity until the latter half of the fourth century, when lists of canonical books begin to appear.
The definition of the term “canon”—which has become increasingly narrow—is influential in determining the date and therefore composition of the New Testament canon. Zahn and Harnack understand “canonical” as referring to a writing that functions authoritatively. If we accept this definition, then a canon emerges quite early (later first to the end of the second century). Sundberg, on the other hand, views “canon” in a stricter sense—as a closed list of writings. If we accept this definition, a canon emerges much later in the fourth century, when such lists began to appear.
These three answers are often viewed as mutually exclusive. However, as John Barton points out, when we look at the actual arguments, each position makes some good points.7 Zahn is correct that most New Testament documents did have authority in the late first and early second centuries; Harnack is correct that these books were discriminately added to in the second and third centuries; Sundberg is correct that it is only from the fourth century onward that authoritative rulings about the exact limits of the canon appear.
However, we could also call each position overstated. Zahn asserted that the New Testament books would one day form a canon, but it is an overstatement to claim that this was the intent of first-century Christians. Harnack does not give enough attention to the reality that, in the second century, there was still an openness to receive other books—that is, to add them to the “canon.” Sundberg states that the latter part of the fourth century is decisive because this is when strict canonical lists began to appear, but it is probable that these lists were documenting what were already accepted earlier lists.
The frequency with which a particular book was cited by church fathers appears to be a more helpful consideration. As Barton explains, “The picture that emerges is surprisingly clear. From the Apostolic Fathers onwards, the Synoptic Gospels (especially Matthew), the Fourth Gospel, and the major Pauline letters are cited much more often than one would predict, if one supposed that the whole of the New Testament we now have was equally ‘canonical’ or important. Correspondingly, the rest of the New Testament (including Acts) is manifestly less important. The third category, books scarcely cited at all, contains most of those which later decisions and decrees affirm to be noncanonical; even in the earliest period none of them is cited even so often as the books of the second class.”8
By focusing on how often books are cited, we can understand the three answers outlined above as three phases of New Testament canonicity that correspond to the chronological positions given by Zahn, Harnack, and Sundberg.9 The history of the New Testament canon framed in these phases focuses on the function of Scripture in the early church.
In the first phase, the core of the present New Testament was already beginning to be treated as the main Christian texts. The identification of these core texts was completed before the end of the first century. Technically speaking, it was not a fixed canon—but it would be equally inappropriate to say there was no core collection of writings.
In the second phase, during the second and third centuries, certain other documents began to be cited more often, suggesting—but not explicitly acknowledging—their addition to the core collection. In studying this phase, one still cannot clearly distinguish between those documents in the New Testament and those outside it. Instead, the distinction is between documents cited often, documents cited little, and books discouraged from use. While the core had ceased to grow, the thought of forming a fixed collection had still not appeared. (Thus, a canonical/noncanonical distinction is misguided at this point.)
In the third phase, during the fourth century, lists of canonical documents proliferated, giving very strong indication that the Church was thinking about a closed canon. But we must realize that to speak even here of a closed canon is difficult because some documents that appear on some of the lists are not in the present canon. Further, a few documents that are in our present canon are absent from some lists.10
Rather than conceiving of a closed New Testament in the second century, to which the Church appealed for its sole source of teaching, this three-phase paradigm forces us to consider how the Church judged and appropriated the writings it included in the New Testament canon. We can talk of an authoritative body of Christian Scripture in the first century, but we cannot claim that that collection of writings was closed even into the fifth century.
Consistent with this focus on the function of Scripture, New Testament canon historians have employed a rubric called the criteria of canonicity—that is, the qualifications that documents needed to meet for inclusion in the canon. This is not to say that there was an explicit list of criteria to which the early Church referred and through which each document was screened before being included in or rejected from the canon. The criteria are a retrospective means for us attempt to understand why certain documents came to be valued above other documents in the early church. This rubric derives from examining the writings of the church fathers and their use of these documents. We must avoid the temptation to view these criteria as hard and fast rules, and it is difficult to rank them in importance because they were not invoked with great consistency or rigor. Rather, they operated interdependently or concurrently—not independently or sequentially. Further, some churches and leaders gave different weight to certain criteria, which explains why some documents took longer to gain universal acceptance in the church.
The first criterion is apostolicity. While this could mean that a document was written by an apostle, it was not necessarily essential. Some of our New Testament documents were received as written by an apostle (e.g., Paul’s letters). But other documents gained wide acceptance because of a direct link to the apostles. Some documents experienced difficulty when it came to widespread acceptance by the church. The best-known example is the book of Hebrews—as Origen of Alexandria’s (ca. ad 184–253) comments illustrate: “If I gave my opinion, I should say that the thoughts are those of the apostle, but the style and composition belong to someone who remembered the apostle’s teachings and wrote down at his leisure what had been said by his teacher. Therefore, if any church holds that this Epistle is by Paul, let it be commended for this also. For it is not without reason that the men of old time have handed it down as Paul’s. But who wrote the Epistle in truth, God knows.”11 Although Origen believed those who accept Hebrews as written by Paul to be mistaken, he did not dismiss Hebrews on that basis—rather, because it is apostolic in teaching, he accepted Hebrews.
The second criterion is orthodoxy. Orthodoxy indicates the congruity of a document with the apostolic faith. To see how this criterion functioned in the life of the church, it is helpful to see how Serapion of Antioch dealt with such a document in the early third century. Eusebius tells us that Serapion wrote a refutation of the Gospel of Peter, the content of which had led a parish in his jurisdiction astray.12 The church at Rhossus was using the Gospel of Peter in their teaching and worship. Initially, this did not trouble Serapion; he believed that they held “the true faith” and could discern this gospel’s doctrine. However, he soon came to learn that he was mistaken after securing a copy of the document. He found that it taught Docetism—which was viewed as a heresy by the orthodox church. Thus, the document denied “the true faith.”
This illustrates orthodoxy being applied as a criterion for a document’s acceptance. Serapion did not appeal to a New Testament canon to see if the Gospel of Peter was included; his appeal was to “the true faith” to discern its teaching. Serapion’s issue was not that the church was using a document outside of a canon, but that they did not discern the heterodoxy of the document. The “rule of faith” was used in this way in the early church as its standard of orthodoxy—something against which teaching and documents were measured. R. P. C Hanson calls it a “graph of the interpretation of the Bible by the Church of the second and third centuries.”13 Even the Christian writings that were eventually included in the New Testament canon were subjected to this rule of faith.14
The third criterion is catholicity (or universality) and traditional use. This criterion is best illustrated in Augustine (ad 354–430): “Now, in regard to the canonical Scriptures, he must follow the judgment of the greater number of catholic churches; and among these, of course, a high place must be given to such as have been thought worthy to be the seat of an apostle and to receive epistles. Accordingly, among the canonical Scriptures he will judge according to the following standard: to prefer those that are received by all the catholic churches to those which some do not receive. Among those, again, which are not received by all, he will prefer such as have the sanction of the greater number and those of greater authority, to such as are held by the smaller number and those of less authority. If, however, he shall find that some books are held by the greater number of churches, and others by the churches of greater authority (though this is not a very likely thing to happen), I think that in such a case the authority on the two sides is to be looked upon as equal.”15
For Augustine, widespread use of a document carried considerable weight for its acceptance. Some churches—like Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople—were given preference over other churches concerning the documents they used. In the case of a writing that was accepted by all compared to a writing that some did not accept, preference was given to the writing accepted by all. When dealing with those documents not accepted by all, one was to accept those with the greater representation among the churches (with greater weight given to the more important churches). Augustine also references the improbable possibility where the majority of the churches use one document while the most important churches employ another document; if this should happen, Augustine’s counsel is to accept both.
Augustine reveals an important reality in the life of the early church: For a document to be received, it had to be accepted and valued as Scripture by a local church. Through gradual and more widespread recognition, that same document gained an even higher stature in the church catholic. But although the passage displays an explicit consideration of canon issues, the variety of canonical lists in the fourth and fifth centuries shows that even then, the issue was not settled for all churches.
Some have offered another criterion of canonicity: inspiration. Some claim this as the predominant criterion. Thus, R. Laird Harris states, “The test of canonicity is inspiration. The early church put into its canon, and we receive, those books which were regarded as inspired, and no others.”16 Harris argues that the Christian documents that came to form the New Testament were the only documents that the early church viewed as inspired.
From one perspective, it is accurate to say that inspiration was a criterion for canonicity; all documents considered orthodox by the early church were, by implication, believed to be inspired. But from another perspective, it is inaccurate to say that inspiration functioned as a criterion of canonicity if we mean that inspiration was believed to belong only to the documents that later became part of the New Testament. This does not mean that the fathers did not regard these New Testament documents as unique—their elevation to canonical status clearly indicates otherwise. It does mean, however, that it was not inspiration that determined their uniqueness above all other Scriptures.
If the argument of writers like Harris is correct and everything in the canon was considered inspired and everything outside it uninspired, one would expect this to be indicated somewhere by the leaders of the early church. But on the rare occasion when a father did declare a writing not to be inspired, he was not saying that it was not a canonical document, but rather that the document was heretical, that it lay outside the community of faith where the Spirit was at work. In other words, canonical versus noncanonical is not synonymous with inspired verses uninspired.
The assertion that the early church’s criteria for the New Testament canon included inspiration has one further problem—the church fathers’ references to noncanonical books as inspired.17 For example, Gregory of Nyssa (ca. ad 330–395) references his brother Basil’s commentary on creation as “an inspired [theopneustos] exposition … [admired] no less than the words composed by Moses himself.”18 In addition, the second-century bishop Abercius Marcellus of Hierapolis composed an inscription that was placed over his future tomb. The Life of Abercius, which was written about this bishop in the fourth century, contains a text of this inscription and describes it as an “inspired inscription.”19 A further example is seen in a letter issued by the Council of Ephesus (ad 431) describing its condemnation of Nestorius as “their inspired decision.”20
These three examples should give one pause when claiming that the early church reserved the term “inspired” for only the canonical documents—each example describes a noncanonical document as “inspired.” This would be very high praise for these documents if inspiration was a designation for only canonical documents. Thus, inspiration did not guarantee inclusion; inspiration was not viewed as the unique possession of only the documents that would come to be canonical.
It is important not to force a 21st-century perspective back onto the sources of the early church. Christianity had a somewhat fluid body of literature that the church used as authoritative. While certain documents rose to preeminence in the life of the church, that rise, in some cases, was not immediate. This is not meant to deny the providence of God in the process but, rather, to say that there were very practical reasons why certain documents came to be valued (and eventually canonized) by the church, and it is on this very practical road to canonization that God providentially led His people by His Spirit.
Craig D. Allert
Further Reading
New Testament Canon CLBD
Apostolic Fathers CLBD
The Formation of the Old Testament
The story of the origin of the Old Testament is multi-layered and complex, and no known ancient sources actually tell it. The Protestant, Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Ethiopian, and Syriac traditions all have slightly different Old Testaments. While they all agree on the books that comprise the Protestant Old Testament, the other groups also include books that Protestants call apocryphal or deuterocanonical books. The books agreed upon are the same as those in the Jewish canon, also known as the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), although Christians have them in a different order. Some Jewish religious books that were popular in the time of Jesus and the early church were read as sacred Scripture. They were considered good for teaching by both Jews and Christians, but were later not included in the Old Testament (e.g., 2 Pet 2:4–9; Jude 14–15; 2 Cor 12:1–4). Some of these other books help us piece together the story of the formation of the Christian Bible and provide insight into the context of early Christianity.
Today, the term “canon” is commonly used to identify those books that comprise the Bible. In antiquity, however, neither the Jews nor the early Christians used the term “canon” as an official catalog. Jews used the phrase “books that defile the hands” to describe their sacred books, and Christians simply used the term “Scripture” or various formulations such as “as it is written” or “as the Scripture says.” Paul initially used the term “canon” in the New Testament (2 Cor 10:13, 15–16) to speak of the limits of his ministry and the rule (or scope) of the Christian faith (Gal 6:16). “Canon” began to be used by Christians to refer to an official list of authoritative sacred writings in the late fourth century ad.
The basic properties of Scripture, both for ancient Judaism and Christianity, seem to include at least four essential elements: The text is a written document; it is believed to have a divine origin; it communicates the will and truth of God for the believing community; and it provides a source of regulations for the corporate and individual life of the community.
The Beginnings of the Idea of Scripture
Despite the importance of the Law in ancient Israel’s identity (e.g., Exod 20), very few authors of the earlier Old Testament Scriptures—such as Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings—actually appeal to Scripture directly. While there are references to sacred writings in this period, there are few references to the Law itself (compare 2 Kgs 22:3–13; 2 Chr 34:8–21). At this stage in Israel’s history, the Law itself—or the conviction that it is God’s Law—may have been largely ignored and thus had little influence in national life. The prophets repeatedly warned the nation to keep the commands of God, but apparently without a positive response.
However, during king Josiah of Judah’s reign in the late seventh century bc, his high priest found the “Book of the Law” (probably Deuteronomy; 2 Kgs 22). After this point, the divinely authoritative status of the sacred writings came to national prominence and several of them were elevated to the status of Scripture, even if they were not yet called “Scripture.” When the Jews returned to their homeland under the leadership of Ezra and Nehemiah after captivity in Babylon in the mid-sixth to mid-fifth century bc, many reforms were instituted. Regular reading and interpretation of the laws of Moses (Pentateuch or Torah) began at this time (Neh 8:1–8).
Early Old Testament Collections
Likely between 400–200 bc, some Jews began more widely to recognize the importance and divine origin of many other prophetic Old Testament Scriptures in addition to the law of Moses. For example, 2 Kings 17:13 references both the Law and some Prophets: “Yahweh warned Israel and Judah by the hand of his every prophet, with every seer … according to all the law which I commanded your ancestors, which I sent to you by the hand of my servants the prophets.” Although it is unclear which prophets 2 Kings 17:13 refers to, the verse indicates that some prophets were recognized by around 400 bc (compare 2 Kgs 17:37, where the admonition to keep the law of God is clear).
The deuterocanonical book of Sirach (also called Ecclesiasticus) identifies the prophets that were influential among the Jews between 200–180 bc. Sirach contains a reference to many of Israel’s heroes, including prophets such as Moses, Nathan, David, Elijah, Elisha, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Job, and Nehemiah (Sirach 49:10). Sirach also includes a reference to the book of the Twelve Minor Prophets and Nehemiah (Sirach 49:6, 8, 10, 13). It is unlikely that Sirach would have known of the heroes he listed without being familiar with the books that tell their stories, suggesting that the books that contain these stories were already accepted as authoritative by his lifetime. Thus, by the late third century or early second century bc, the Israelites recognized many (if not most) of the more familiar Old Testament books as Scripture.
The early first-century bc deuterocanonical text 2 Maccabees records Judas Maccabeus’ actions after the Greek king Antiochus IV Epiphanes’ destroyed many Jewish sacred books and committed other heinous acts, stating: “Judas also collected all the books that had been lost on account of the war that had come upon us, and they are in our possession. So if you have need of them, send people to get them for you” (2 Macc 2:14–15 nrsv). It is unclear which sacred books 2 Maccabees refers to, but 1 Maccabees 1:56 suggests the collection involved at least the Law: “The books of the law that they found they tore to pieces and burned with fire” (nrsv). It’s unknown, though, whether “books of the law” refers to the Pentateuch (Genesis—Deuteronomy) or to all of the Jewish sacred Scriptures.
It is certain that collections of the Jewish Scriptures were circulating in the land of Israel (Palestine) in the second and first centuries bc; however, it is unknown what writings were included in these collections. All of the books that compose the Hebrew Bible except Esther and Nehemiah were found at Qumran among the Dead Sea Scrolls (dating ca. 250 bc–ad 50). In the Dead Sea Scrolls’ document known as Miqsat Maase Hatorah, the Jewish sacred writings are described as the “book of Moses, the books of the prophets, and David” (likely a reference to the Psalms). Miqsat Maase Hatorah also references the “annals of each generation,” which may be a reference to the Historical Books of 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, and 1–2 Chronicles. Although the specific books of each of these categories are not identified, Miqsat Maase Hatorah shows that the Scriptures were grouped into specific, authoritative collections.
At the same time, many other religious books besides those that currently make up the Hebrew Bible were read and circulated among Jews (and later Christians) during the first centuries bc and ad. The Hebrew Bible writings among the Dead Sea Scrolls were found alongside many additional religious texts: Of the more than 900 manuscripts discovered, about 700 were nonbiblical works.
Early References to the Old Testament Collections and Canon
The Old Testament—and Jewish literature written between the Old Testament and New Testament—attests to the belief that God has delivered divine messages through prophetic figures (like Moses and Isaiah), as well as through the Psalms. The followers of Jesus inherited this notion of sacred Scripture and the Hebrew Scriptures themselves—although they often read them in Greek. Early Christ followers also inherited the commonly accepted designations for sections of the Scriptures, namely, the Law and the Prophets (e.g., Luke 24:27).
The New Testament generally only includes references to the Law and the Prophets (see Matt 5:17; 7:12; Luke 24:27; Acts 28:23), but in Luke 24:44, Jesus mentions that everything about Him in the “law of Moses and the prophets and the psalms must be fulfilled.” The categories may suggest that a third grouping (“psalms”) was emerging at that time.
Both Jesus and His followers cited the Jewish Scriptures as an authoritative collection of sacred books (Luke 24:13–35). Those books influenced virtually the entire life and ministry of the community of Jesus’ followers. The central teachings of the Church were rooted in Scripture (see 1 Cor 15:3–8), and early Christians regularly incorporated Scripture as they told their story. All of the New Testament authors regularly cite the Jewish Scriptures; in particular, the book of Hebrews includes more Scripture citations than any other New Testament book. The books that are most frequently cited in the New Testament and early church writings are Deuteronomy, Isaiah, and the Psalms. Not all of the Old Testament books are cited in the New Testament and there are allusions to some nonbiblical books (e.g., 1 Enoch in 2 Pet 2:4 and Jude 14).
In the late first century ad, the historian Josephus is the first Jewish writer to limit the number of books that make up the Jewish Scriptures. He mentions a limited 22-book collection identified only by category, not specific titles. In Against Apion, he writes:
Our books, those which are justly accredited, are but two and twenty, and contain the record of all time. Of these, five are the books of Moses, comprising the laws and the traditional history from the birth of man down to the death of the lawgiver … The prophets subsequent to Moses wrote the history of the events of their own times in thirteen books. The remaining four books contain hymns to God and precepts for the conduct of human life.1
While it is not entirely clear which books were included in Josephus’ collection, he is likely referring to the books that later comprised the Hebrew Bible, though that is not clear in Josephus’ writings.
At about the same time as Josephus, the author of the Jewish apocalyptic work 4 Ezra referred to 24 books to be read by both the worthy and unworthy alike, but 70 others that were reserved for the “wise among your people. For in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the river of knowledge” (4 Ezra 14:45–7 nrsv). The 24 books are likely the same as those that Josephus had mentioned, only counted differently by combining books in different ways. The later tripartite Hebrew Bible (Law, Prophets, and Writings) appears for the first time in the middle to late second-century BC. Those books are also likely the same as those in the Protestant Old Testament, but not in the same order. In the late first-century ad we cannot be certain about all of the books that Josephus had in mind, but we can be sure that he wanted the number to be the same as the letters in the Hebrew alphabet (22) by combining the books to equal that number
The Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament
The Christian Old Testament is divided into four categories: Law (or Pentateuch), History, Poetry (includes Wisdom Literature), and Prophets. The Jewish Scriptures are divided into the three categories of Law, Prophets, and Writings.
After the second century ad, it appears that the story of the Christian Old Testament diverges from that of the Jewish Tanakh. This is likely because early Jewish Christians separated from synagogue and temple-based Judaism on two major occasions: when James the brother of Jesus was executed in ad 62, and during the last Jewish revolt against Rome in ad 132–35. In addition, many Jewish Christians welcomed Gentiles into the early church apart from the requirement of their keeping the Law, especially circumcision. Thus, early Christians, when departing from broader Judaism, accepted those Jewish Scriptures that were circulating in Israel in the first centuries bc and ad as authoritative.
The Scope of the Old Testament
There were no Jewish councils to determine the scope of the Jewish canon; rather, this process took several centuries. It also took several centuries for Christians to determine the scope of their Old Testament. Several Christian councils in the late fourth-century ad affirmed the scope of the Old Testament in use within wider Christianity. The decisions of these councils, and the lists of early church fathers, affirm what is currently the Protestant Old Testament and some of the deuterocanonical (or apocryphal) works; they also often list a variety of deuterocanonical works as valuable for instruction but not canonical. Among the writings of the early church fathers, usage and affirmation (or lack thereof) of the deuterocanonical books varies. However, the books of the Protestant Old Testament seem to have been affirmed by most Christian churches, though like the Jewish rabbis, some early church fathers questioned the inclusion of Esther, Song of Songs, and Ecclesiastes.
Only the apocryphal or deuterocanonical works are disputed today. The precise collection and status of these books varies slightly depending on faith tradition. Prior to the Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth century ad, it seems that most Christians accepted most of the books embraced by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions because they were included in the Greek and Latin Bibles that were most commonly used in the early church. The ancient Christian Bibles Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus, and Codex Alexandrinus (dating from the fourth—fifth centuries ad), all include some of these books. The earliest edition of the King James Bible also included the Apocrypha, as did several other Protestant Bibles well into the 17th century. Most Protestant Bibles had eliminated the Apocrypha by 1831; those that did include the apocryphal (or deuterocanonical) books placed them in an appendix to the Old Testament rather than inside the collection of the other Old Testament books. While all churches have not agreed on the full scope of their Old Testament books, all agree that the books in the Protestant Old Testament should be included.
Lee Martin McDonald
Further Reading
Further Reading
Hosea, Book of CLBD
Amos, Book of CLBD
Jonah, Book of CLBD
Micah, Book of CLBD
Nahum, Book of CLBD
Habakkuk, Book of CLBD
Zephaniah, Book of CLBD
Joel, Book of CLBD
Obadiah, Book of CLBD
Haggai, Book of CLBD
Zechariah, Book of CLBD
Malachi, Book of CLBD
The Gospel of John and the Johannine Letters
The Gospel and letters of John together make up a significant portion of the New Testament. The Gospel presents an account of the life of Jesus, whereas the letters provide insights into the nature and challenges of the early church. Both continue to nourish and sustain the life of the Church.
Authorship
John’s Gospel is most often attributed to the “Beloved Disciple.” The Gospel suggests that this disciple knew Jesus well and was an eyewitness even to His death and the empty tomb (John 13:23; 19:35; 20:4–5). A circle around this disciple could have then affirmed and circulated his account (John 21:24).
Ancient tradition identifies this disciple as John, son of Zebedee. Fitting this identification, the sons of Zebedee were Jesus’ most intimate disciples who were not individually named in the Gospel (though they appear once together in John 21:2). The Beloved Disciple holds a place of special honor in John 13:23, and options for who occupied this position appear limited (though some suggest Lazarus or Thomas). Besides John, Jesus’ inner circle in the other first-century Gospels included only James, who was martyred early (Acts 12:2), and Peter, whom John’s Gospel distinguishes from the Beloved Disciple (John 13:24; 20:4–6).
While the most common author suggested is John, more than one John serves as a candidate for authorship. The fourth-century church historian Eusebius suggests two potential authors: John the apostle (the son of Zebedee) and John the Elder. Differing significantly from the earlier Synoptic Gospels, the Gospel of John itself took time to gain wide acceptance, which may suggest John the Elder as its author. However, the son of Zebedee, by contrast, is clearly close to Jesus and this gives him probable status as the Beloved Disciple.
Even if the Beloved Disciple was not the author but merely the primary source, a school of disciples around the Beloved Disciple could have developed and finished the Gospel over time.
However, the Gospel as a whole most likely comes from the Beloved Disciple, an eyewitness. Although the author framed the Gospel in his own words—a common practice of the first-century—it reflects real information about Jesus. More important for the author is the Spirit’s work of inspiration of true testimony for Jesus (John 15:26–27).
For the Johannine Letters (1–3 John), it seems that 1 John alludes to John’s Gospel in its opening text and that the author of the Johannine Letters is also the author of the Gospel. The styles are very close, and the differences seem no more than what would be expected for documents addressing different settings. It could also be that a later editor of the Gospel authored one or more of the letters. It is also possible that the author or authors of the letters were familiar with, but did not necessarily write, the earlier Gospel. Until the 20th century, however, most readers assumed that the common style and content did indeed suggest the same author for the Gospel and letters.
Types of Writings
The Gospels can be classified as ancient biographies. At that time, most biographies about figures (within a generation or two of the author) included substantial historical information about the person. A range of biographies existed, some exhibiting greater flexibility in putting their material in their own words. Most interpreters agree that John used greater flexibility in this process than the other Gospel writers. However, this feature of his Gospel does not mean that he lacked historical information.
While John did not try to tell Jesus’ story the same way the Synoptic Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke did, points of overlap show that John, like the authors of the Synoptics, depended on some prior information. Hence, while John often provides different information than the Synoptics, his narratives resemble them. The greatest differences appear in the speeches, which overlap with certain ideas in the Synoptics but offer a greater elaboration of Jesus’ identity (compare Matt 11:27; John 5:19–20).
Although 2 John and 3 John resemble typical ancient letters, 1 John seems more like a homily (or brief sermon). If a letter, it may be what is sometimes called a letter essay, a letter addressing a particular topic.
Context and Background
Ancient tradition suggests that John wrote his Gospel in the final decade of the first century, when Domitian was emperor. Although the earliest form of John’s Gospel (probably oral accounts in John’s preaching) may have circulated in Judaea, very early tradition places the final form in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), around Ephesus.
Familiarity with the ancient Jewish setting of John’s Gospel helps in understanding its themes and content. Contrasts between light and darkness and between God and the world throughout the Gospel resemble similar contrasts in the Dead Sea Scrolls. (John’s circle, however, was not isolated like the wilderness community of the Scrolls.)
Because John undoubtedly sought to emphasize the points most significant to his audience, it is possible to compare his emphasis with our understanding of the first-century world. It could be that John wrote to encourage Jewish believers in Jesus who had been expelled from their synagogues (see John 9:22; 12:42; 16:2). Ancient rabbis and Christians both attest to this conflict, and it probably affected certain cities in Asia Minor (see Rev 2:9; 3:8–9). John wrote after the temple’s destruction in ad 70, which may explain his special interest in worship in the Spirit that transcends earthly temples (John 4:20–24).
There are a variety of Jewish symbols and allusions in the Gospel. With these, John may be encouraging his audience that following Jesus affirms their heritage. Jesus fulfills traditional elements of biblical festivals. On the last day of the Feast of Tabernacles, priests in Jerusalem read texts about rivers of water from Jerusalem (Ezek 47:1–12; Zech 14:8). On the last day of that festival, Jesus promises rivers of living water (John 7:2, 37–39). Jesus uses water from the Pool of Siloam, also used for a special ritual at that festival, to heal a man born blind (John 9:7).
If John’s audience was expelled from their synagogues, their critics may have challenged their Jewish identity; John’s Gospel affirms the identity of Jesus’ followers as, like Israel, His “flock” or “sheep” (Ezek 34:11–12; John 10:3–4). Critics may have challenged the faithfulness of Jesus’ followers to the Law, God’s Word; John responds that Jesus Himself is the Word, the embodiment of God’s revelation. While God revealed His glory in giving the Law, no one could endure seeing the full revelation of His glory (Exod 33:19–20; 34:6); in Jesus, however, God fully reveals His grace and truth (John 1:14–18).
The Johannine Letters draw on much of the vocabulary of John’s Gospel, but they address different issues. First John and 2 John address a situation in which certain people have turned away from recognizing Jesus as the Christ. While this may refer to believers who abandoned Christianity because of pressure from the synagogues, it could be that these separatists were followers of a false teaching that claimed Jesus was not fully human (1 John 4:1–3; 2 John 7). John emphasizes that the Spirit honors the real Jesus to whom he was bearing witness (John 14:26; 16:13–15; 1 John 4:1–3). Third John probably addresses a power struggle in a local church.
Theological Significance
Of John’s many emphases, the most prominent surround Jesus’s identity. John frames the prologue of his Gospel by emphasizing both Jesus’ deity and His intimacy with the Father (John 1:1, 18). John sees Jesus as God, yet distinct from the Father. Jesus is called the king of Israel and God’s holy one—but Thomas offers the Gospel’s climactic confession: “My Lord and my God!” (John 20:28; compare 1:29, 49; 6:69). John immediately offers his climactic message: He writes so that his audience can have faith, even though they do not see as Thomas did. Jesus also reveals His identity in this Gospel with various “I am” statements. He calls Himself the Bread of Life, the Good Shepherd, and the Vine (John 6:35, 48; 10:11, 14; 15:1). Ultimately, Jesus claims that before Abraham was born, “I am” (John 8:58). Here He echoes earlier biblical language for God. This may also be implied in His claim, “It is I,” when walking on the waves in John 6:20 (see Mark 6:50). Literally, Jesus says, “I am.” This theme of Jesus’ deity carries throughout the rest of the book, although not to the exclusion of His humanity (1:14). Jesus also becomes weary (John 4:6) and thirsty (John 19:28). He fully embraced our condition, even dying for us, to reveal God’s love.
Another prominent theme in John is the Spirit, whom God sends through Jesus (John 3:34; 14:16, 26; 15:26). The Spirit reveals Jesus so people can know Him and be in relationship with Him (John 16:13–15). “Knowing” God in this way is a major theme in Johannine literature (John 10:14–15; 17:3; 1 John 4:7–8). The Spirit also comes to purify and transform, as Jesus says to Nicodemus (John 3:5). Using the motif of water, the Gospel highlights a living relationship with God over merely human traditions and rituals. Jesus’ baptism in the Spirit is greater than John’s baptism in water; Jesus is greater than ritual water, the water of Samaria’s sacred well, a healing pool, and the sacred water of Siloam (John 1:33; 2:6; 4:12–14; 5:7–9; 9:7). The true water of the Spirit effects what mere ritual water cannot (John 7:37–39). Jesus emphasizes that the Spirit comes to reveal and honor Him (John 14:26; 16:13–15) so that subsequent generations of disciples may also know Him personally. This Spirit will teach the real Jesus made known through John’s witness. The Spirit works through Jesus’ followers to continue making Jesus known (John 15:26–27; 16:7–11; 20:21–23).
Those who believe in Jesus have eternal life, also an important theme for John. In Jewish usage, “eternal life” meant the life of the world to come, but in Jesus, this life starts in the present (John 1:12–13; 3:3–6; compare John 8:44). John does not treat all faith equally; faith must persevere to the end to be saving faith (John 2:23–25; 8:30–32). Faith must also have the right object. When Thomas confesses Jesus as Lord and God, Jesus praises him for believing the truth, yet offers even higher praise for those who recognize this without seeing Him (John 20:28–29).
The Gospel also teaches us a lot about love. Jesus’ highest command is to love one another as He loved us (John 13:34–35). He loved by serving and, ultimately, by laying down His life for us. From the preaching of John the Baptist to the sending of the disciples, the theme of witness is also important. Jesus’ followers are not the light; yet they have the privilege of bearing witness to the one who is the light (John 1:8–9).
First John develops several of these themes in the Fourth Gospel, referring back to Jesus’ coming as the Word of life in our human nature (1 John 1:1) and to the Spirit’s anointing associated with that message (1 John 4:2–6). It apparently addresses a situation in which false teachers have proclaimed a conflicting message about Jesus (1 John 4:2–3). Some have abandoned the community of believers and stopped loving them; John seems to portray departure from adequate belief in Jesus and from loving fellow believers as a sin leading to death (1 John 2:18–19; 5:16–17). By contrast, John reassures the believers who continue to follow Jesus and to love one another. Second John may address a similar issue, and 3 John addresses proper relationships among believers. The letters illustrate that whoever embraces God’s love—of which the Fourth Gospel speaks so eloquently—must also love fellow believers, following Jesus’ example of self-sacrifice (John 13:14–15, 34–35; 1 John 2:7–11).
Craig S. Keener
Further Reading
John, Gospel of CLBD
John, Letters of CLBD
Textual Criticism of the New Testament CLBD
The Graeco-Roman Background of the New Testament
Toward the end of the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites were freed from exile and permitted to go back to their homeland (2 Chr 36:22–23). The decree by Cyrus the Great announcing this release seemed like the liberation from exile promised by the prophets long ago. At the beginning of the nt, however, Israel was not a free nation: It was a country under the control of the Roman government (Matt 2:3; Luke 2:1–3). Between the decree of Cyrus and the writing of the nt, Rome grew into an empire, gaining control over several territories, including Palestine—a development that directly affected the ministry of Christ and the teaching of Paul and other nt authors.
From the End of the Exile to the Roman Government
Long before the Roman Empire gained control of Palestine, Alexander the Great conquered much of the known world. This included Palestine, which Alexander “Hellenized” by importing the Greek language, architecture, and culture into this and other non-Greek countries. Alexander died young, leaving neither a plan nor preparations for a successor. Many fought to fill the vacuum of power he left. Palestine and other areas became prizes in the ensuing battle, and eventually Alexander’s empire broke up into several smaller provinces with leaders called Diadochoi (or “Successors”). The two most important for the study of Palestine and the nt were the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. The Seleucids controlled the area north of Israel (now Syria), while the Ptolemies controlled the area south of Israel (Egypt).
Division between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids led to the establishment of Palestine as a “buffer zone” between them. As result, Palestine became the site of many wars as the Seleucids and Ptolemies sought to add it to their province. While there was a short time of peace after the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucids, it did not last long. The many scuffles between Jewish groups led to the fall of the Jewish ruling dynasty (the Hasmoneans) in 63 bc. Palestine was then put under the control of Rome.
How Did Roman Control affect the Writing of the New Testament?
Three important aspects of the Roman government affected the writing of the nt: governing forces, taxes, and roads.
Roman Government
Rather than provide Palestine with peace, the Pax Romana seemed to trade one group of factions for another. However, the nt shows that God used the Roman government to accomplish His plans, especially in the birth of Jesus and the trials of Paul.
Luke reports Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem. Each adult male was ordered by Caesar to return to his place of birth for a census and taxation (Luke 2:1–2). Thus, it was in Bethlehem, the birthplace of Joseph, that Jesus was born—fulfilling the prophecy of Mic 5:2.
Matthew speaks of Herod the Great, the cruel ruler of Palestine who was unwilling to share his power (Matt 2:1–2). When the wise men asked Herod about the newborn “king of the Jews,” he immediately became upset (and because of his reputation, “all Jerusalem with him”; Matt 2:3). Herod eventually had all male children of Bethlehem slaughtered because of this possible challenge to his power. Matthew reminds the reader that this represented a fulfilled prophecy as well, demonstrating God’s power even over those who wickedly rule on behalf of Rome (Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18).
The Roman government also affected the life of Paul. His trials, imprisonment, and eventual death happened at the hands of the government. While the book of Acts provides most of the information about Paul’s trials and imprisonment, according to early Christian tradition, Paul was beheaded (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.25.7–8). Paul’s Roman citizenship exempted him by law from the horrors of crucifixion (Acts 22:25).
From the birth of Jesus to the imprisonment of Paul, no one could escape the wide net of Rome’s control. While the nt casts Rome’s actions as ultimately fulfilling the will of God, Roman rule was oppressive for Jewish people at the time (compare Josephus, J.W. 2:12; 224–225).
Roman Taxes
Palestinians in the nt era can be divided into four basic groups, from the economically prosperous to the very poor. The smallest group was the “ruling elite,” a category including Herod the Great. This small percentage of the population was considered very rich.
The “retainer class” made up the second tier. These were the strength and “muscle” of the rulers: the “courtiers and military tribunes and the most prominent men of Galilee” (Mark 6:21). Not as rich as the ruling elite, they were better off than simple landowners. They received payment either from Rome or the leader they supported and fared much better than those dependent upon the agrarian economy.
“Landowners” composed the third tier. They usually depended on a small piece of land for their livelihood. Unable to aspire to a higher class, they were always in danger of falling into the lowest class of society because of taxes, harvest problems, or property seizure by the ruling elite. This tier and the one below included the vast majority of Palestinians. The differences between the top and bottom two tiers was immense.
“Peasants” occupied the bottom of the social scale. Without land or much money, they did whatever they could to survive, often depending upon day labor (Matt 20:1–2), thievery (Luke 10:30), and prostitution (Matt 21:31).
Landowners lost their land and became peasants if they could not pay their taxes. At minimum, the Roman government levied a land and personal tax, and many regions also had additional taxes. This placed an incredible burden on those living on the edge of poverty. The poverty in Palestine due to Roman taxation serves as a backdrop for the Gospels, as Jesus emphasized God’s care for the poor (Matt 5:3) as well as trust in God’s care despite poverty (Matt 6:11, 26).
Because of the dichotomy between rich and poor, the lower tiers fostered hatred of tax collectors (Luke 5:30). Revolts often occurred. Josephus mentions a case in which residents who did not join a revolt became eligible for a one-quarter decrease in their taxes (Josephus, J.W. 2:6; 96). Many of the poor in Israel saw no way out of their plight, and they hoped for a leader who would lead a revolt against Rome and revive David’s reign.
Roman Roads
The saying “all roads lead to Rome” was not far from the truth during the first century ad. Rome built a structure of roads unequaled for several centuries. The major roads were paved with stones, while minor ones were covered with sand or gravel. They were used for military travel, mail (governmental and personal, such as Paul’s letters), and personal travel, usually on foot.
Paul was likely one of the most traveled persons of his time. He engaged in three missionary journeys, traveling by boat and on foot (Acts 13:1–14; 28:14–16). Roman roads helped facilitate the spread of the gospel. While Paul left the main roads from time to time, many of the churches he formed were on widely traveled roads. Believers in these cities continued to have widespread effect on the empire—sharing the gospel with other travelers.
The influence of Roman roads also appears in the letters to the seven churches in the book of Revelation (Rev 2:1–3:22). A letter carrier leaving the island of Patmos and traveling along a Roman road could encounter each of the churches mentioned in the order listed in the book (Ephesus first, Laodicea last).
Travel was made easier as a result of the Roman government, which allowed for the gospel’s spread on a scale that would not have been possible before. While different views exist regarding the influence of Rome on the nt authors and their view of the empire, the writings of the first century were certainly influenced by the empire. Understanding the historical and social context of the Roman Empire helps us better understand the nt.
Samuel Lamerson
Further Reading:
The Formation of the New Testament
Rome CLBD
Hebrews and the General Letters
Between Paul’s letters and Revelation are eight letters. Six of these letters are called by the designation General Letters because of the viewpoint that they are addressed to a broad group of people, rather than a specific church (Hebrews, James, 1–2 Peter, 1 John, and Jude); 2–3 John are grouped with this collection because of their affiliation with 1 John. These letters are sometimes called the Catholic Letters after the Greek term katholikē, meaning “universal.”
In the early Church period, Hebrews was grouped with Paul’s Letters. However, virtually all modern scholars do not believe Paul wrote it, and there was also some dispute about its authorship among early Church fathers. Thus, even though it is one-of-a-kind in terms of style and genre, it is often grouped with the General Letters in contemporary literature.
Authorship
Hebrews
While it is now commonly believed that Paul did not write Hebrews, it is clear that Hebrews comes from someone in the Pauline circle, because it refers to Timothy in the letter ending (Heb 13:23). On the other hand, the style is un-Pauline; its topics are not those Paul was known to address; its audience is not one that Paul wrote to; and its philosophical affinities do not align with his. Various people have been proposed as author, from Apollos to Aquila and Priscilla, but the author is unknown.
General Letters
Broadly speaking, early Church tradition assigns six of the General Letters to the three “pillar apostles”—James, Peter and John—with Jude being ascribed to the brother of Jesus. While James does not call himself an apostle, Paul refers to James (the brother of Jesus) as an apostle (Gal 1:19) and groups him with Peter and John as a “pillar” (Gal 2:9). However, there was dispute among the early Church fathers about the authorship of 2 Peter, 2 John and 3 John—a debate that continues today. Authorship of 2 Peter is questioned on the basis of stylistic differences compared to 1 Peter. The debate regarding 2 John and 3 John centers around the author’s references to himself as “the elder,” which could indicate that these letters were written by another church leader named John (2 John 1; 3 John 1). This has also led to modern debate about the authorship of 1 John (see the “Introduction to the Gospel of John and Johannine Letters”).
In the early Church period, 1 John, 1 Peter and James were attributed to the apostles John, Peter, and James; likewise, the letter of Jude was attributed to Jesus’ brother Jude. However, in modern scholarship there is some debate about the authorship of 1 Peter, James, and Jude primarily on the basis of writing style. To some interpreters, these letters seem to reflect a higher level of education than the purported authors would have had. If this is the case, then the attribution signifies that they are written in the tradition of these church leaders, not necessarily by them.
Context and Style
Hebrews
Hebrews is named Hebrews because it appears to address Jews who had become Christians and were under pressure to renounce Jesus and return to more traditional Judaism. The work as a whole is more of a sermon or homily than a letter, but it does have a letter ending. That makes it something of a hybrid.
Hebrews is written in very educated Greek style, comparable to the style of Luke, using involved sentences and wide vocabulary. It uses the Greek version of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), so the author and addressees were probably outside Palestine. It shows the influence of Neoplatonism or what might be called Alexandrian Judaism. It is rhetorically elegant, which is another mark of education.
General Letters
The idea that these letters are “general,” or addressed to Christians rather than specific churches or individuals, is partially true. First John does not name any addressees, but it envisions specific circumstances in a church or group of churches by addressing issues affiliated with a group that has left the Church (1 John 2:19). The books of 2 and 3 John name very specific addressees (2 John 1; 3 John 1). Only James is truly general in that it represents a diaspora letter, a letter on various subjects that Jewish authorities in Jerusalem sent out to Jews scattered outside of Palestine. First Peter is a circular letter, a letter sent to churches throughout five Roman provinces, arranged in the order that a letter-carrier would have visited them. Second Peter and Jude address specific situations in a church or group of churches, although the churches are not named.
In terms of style and use of the Old Testament, the General Letters are diverse. First Peter resembles the style of Paul’s letters, although with distinct theological emphases. First Peter does not address the relationship of Gentile and Jewish believers, whereas the Pauline Letters lack 1 Peter’s focus on the alienation of believers from society. James’ style of composition is such that it does not contain a connected argument all the way through. The style of 2 Peter resembles Jude rather than 1 Peter, lacking 1 Peter’s long sentences. James and 1 Peter quote the ancient Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint), whereas 2 Peter and Jude do not; Jude also refers directly to the extra-biblical, Jewish work 1 Enoch.
Basic Theological Themes
Hebrews
Hebrews has some of the highest Christology in the New Testament. Its starting point is that God’s Son became fully incarnate and thus is the highest revelation of God, as well as the greatest High Priest and Lawgiver.
Hebrews also stresses the continuity of belief in Jesus with Old Testament revelation, but that continuity is one of “better than” rather than merely “more of the same.” Thus the revelation by the Son is better than the revelation mediated through angels to Moses, the sacrifice of the Son is better than that of the Levitical priests, and the whole series of Old Testament saints points to and culminates in Jesus and His Church. There is no denigrating of the Torah (law) or Judaism, but rather a declaration that the vastly better has arrived.
Hebrews is concerned with the danger of apostasy (people abandoning their beliefs). Positively, the author outlines the basics of the faith—what was preached in the gospel—in Hebrews 6. Negatively, there is a series of warning passages starting in chapter two. The author is convinced that the addressees have not yet apostatized, but he warns them not to go too near to that edge; they are to draw nearer to Jesus instead.
Finally, Hebrews calls followers of Jesus to follow Him in suffering. They are to be willing to suffer as the heroes of Hebrews 11 often suffered, and to identify with their great High Priest.
James
James focuses primarily on the social-political climate of the early Church, particularly how the wealthy believers were treating their poorer brothers and sisters. Like the Johannine Letters (1–3 John), James addresses a threat of division between rich and poor. In James’ setting, Christians began to favor the rich at the expense of the needy; for James, this represented a moral abandonment of faith—a friendship with the world’s values that made one an enemy of God (Jas 4:4). However, James maintains that the way of repentance remains open for his audience. His letter emphasizes wise, practical living—personally, communally, and spiritually.
First Peter
Instead of threats of division within the early Church, Peter addresses the place of believers within the Greco-Roman world around them. Beginning with the idea of new birth, Peter tells his audience that their fundamental identity is no longer as citizens of the empire; rather, as God’s chosen people, His new temple and royal priesthood, they are resident aliens. First Peter, then, addresses how believers should live in a cultural atmosphere hostile to Christianity.
Peter tells his readers not to make concessions with Rome to ease their persecution, but to live honorably and stand firm in the tradition they received. The persecution experienced by these believers includes slander, economic disadvantages, and perhaps for some (such as slaves), beatings. However, Peter may have sensed an intensification in suffering in Rome and throughout the empire. His letter, then, is a call for endurance. Peter tells Christians that they must persevere through the trials they encounter and exhibit righteous conduct as they do so. They are to accept their trials as God’s will, while waiting patiently for their ultimate vindication when Christ returns to judge the nations (1 Pet 4:17, 19).
Second Peter
Second Peter draws from Jude but addresses a slightly different situation: Teachers within the community who taught that Jesus would not return and that there was neither a resurrection nor final judgment. Second Peter does not express any hope for these false teachers (2 Pet 2:1). As an alternative to the false message, 2 Peter argues vigorously for Jesus’ return to rule and judge, and admonishes believers to live in the light of this expectation.
The Johannine Letters (1–3 John)
The Johannine Letters address the reality of division within the Christian community regarding how to understand the nature of Christ. Continuing the theology of the Fourth Gospel with its emphasis on love and unity, the letters of 1–2 John also emphasize Jesus’ full humanity (see the “Introduction to the Gospel of John and the Johannine Letters”). The letters of 1–2 John address the issue of false teachers who deny the Christian teaching that Jesus had truly come in the flesh (1 John 4:2; 2 John 7). John urges the community to avoid the faction of false teachers and their followers who have departed from their community (e.g., 1 John 2:19). The letter of 3 John addresses personal rivalries and hospitality.
Jude
Jude addresses the issues affiliated with a group that has fallen away from true faith and obedience but has snuck into a believing community. Perhaps because they have Greco-Roman rather than Jewish mores, they violate the early Church’s ethics on both greed and sexuality. Jude roundly condemns the opponents but also ends his letter by instructing the faithful to help others walk away from falsehood (Jude 23), although the faithful should use caution as they do so. Thus, like James, Jude holds open the hope of repentance and restoration.
Each of the General Letters addresses a particular situation faced by the early Church. Yet each one similarly emphasizes Christian conduct, either within a particular community or in response to outside persecution. In addition, they all possess an eschatological outlook—that is, they view themselves and those who persecute them in light of the return of Christ, who will judge all things with justice and vindicate His faithful servants.
Peter H. Davids
Further Reading:
The Historical Books
Twelve books in the Protestant canon of the ot are commonly called the Historical Books: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, Ezra—Nehemiah, and Esther. This term does not imply that the other books in the Bible (or portions thereof) should not also be considered historical, but describes these 12 books in their largely narrative character as they tell the story of God’s dealings with His people over many centuries. They cover Israel’s entry into the land of Canaan as a nation (Joshua); the chaotic period of apostasy in the time of the judges (Judges and Ruth); the establishment of the Davidic monarchy (1–2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles); the history of Israel’s life under its kings (1–2 Kings and 2 Chronicles); and Israel’s exile in another land and what happened afterward (Esther and Ezra—Nehemiah).
These books were not written to tell history for history’s sake but to show how God works through history. Their immediate audience would have been any of God’s people in their respective eras, but the preservation of these books centuries beyond shows that their messages endure for all generations.
Authorship
All 12 of the Historical Books are anonymous. None makes any claim of authorship, and nowhere else in the Bible is there any such claim for these books. A good case can be made for the independent authorship of each, with 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings, 1–2 Chronicles, and Ezra—Nehemiah each considered as one book.
Context and Background
The historical background to these books spans close to 1,000 years, beginning with Israel’s entry into the land of Canaan around 1400 bc–1200 bc (depending on an early or late dating of the exodus). This was a time of great turmoil in Canaan and elsewhere, and the chaos of the time of the judges should not be surprising against such a backdrop.
With the rise of David and the establishment of a monarchy in Israel around 1000 bc, life in the land stabilized. The large empires (Egypt, Assyria, Babylon) were relatively quiet at this time, which allowed Israel to be established as a regional power under David and Solomon.
However, Solomon’s sins prompted God to partition the land, resulting in a divided kingdom (ca. 930 bc). The kingdoms of Israel (in the north) and Judah (in the south) maintained an uneasy coexistence for about 200 years, until the fall of Israel to the Assyrians in 722 bc. Judah continued as an independent kingdom until the fall of Jerusalem to the Babylonians in 586 bc.
When the Persians under Cyrus conquered Babylon in 539 bc, the Jews were allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple and the city’s walls. The final events of the Historical Books took place in 433 bc, when Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem from Babylon (Neh 13).
Basic Theological Themes
Joshua
The book of Joshua describes God giving the promised land of Canaan to His people Israel as an inheritance. The book looks back at the many promises God made to Abraham and his descendants. It also looks ahead as the first account of Israel living in the promised land.
Judges
Judges exposes a deepening apostasy throughout Israel that spirals into spiritual, societal, and political chaos. The book looks ahead to the establishment of a legitimate, God-honoring monarchy, rooted in the ideal king of Deuteronomy 17.
Ruth
This book shows God’s providence in the life of one family in David’s line. The genealogy at the end of the account connects David with the promises that God gave to Judah centuries earlier, and points the way to the establishment of a legitimate monarchy under David.
1–2 Samuel
This book tells the story of Israel’s transition from chaotic life under the judges, where “everyone did right in their own eyes,” to life under God’s chosen king, David. David was “a man after God’s own heart,” to whom God promised an everlasting throne and lineage (2 Sam 7:16).
1–2 Kings
Kings begins with the story of the slow unraveling of the monarchy in David’s last days and especially under his son Solomon. Israel divides into two kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the fall of Israel in 722 bc and the fall of Judah in 586 bc. The tragic ends to these kingdoms are rooted in the continuing unfaithfulness of their kings and people. Yet a few godly kings lead their people back to the Lord, and God’s promises to David endure even under perilous circumstances.
1–2 Chronicles
This book parallels 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings, while focusing particularly on David and his descendants, the kings of Judah, ignoring the history of the northern kingdom of Israel. They emphasize godliness, proper worship in the temple, the reward of the righteous, and the punishment of the unrighteous. It ends on the uplifting note that Cyrus had released the Jews from captivity.
Ezra—Nehemiah
The story of postexilic Judah is told in these closely related books, beginning with the first return of an Israelite remnant from exile in 538 bc. The account narrates the rebuilding of the temple, followed by the ministries of Ezra and Nehemiah about a century later. These two men were instrumental in renewing a discouraged people, encouraging loyalty to God’s covenant, rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem, and undertaking other reforms.
Esther
In this book God’s unseen hand is seen at work in the lives of Jews in exile, showing His favor through the leadership of Esther and Mordecai. The book does not mention God by name, however, suggesting that His people sometimes need to discern His presence through indirect hints and glimpses.
Relationship to the Larger Biblical Narrative and Themes
Throughout the Historical Books, three major ot covenants—the Abrahamic, the Mosaic, and the Davidic—point ahead to the new covenant. The Historical Books build on the first two covenants and introduce readers to the third.
The Abrahamic Covenant
God promised Abraham that he and his descendants would be a blessing to all peoples of the earth (Gen 12:1–3). This is demonstrated in the stories of Rahab, Ruth, Naaman, and others; all were foreigners who embraced Israel’s God and became Israelites—not by virtue of bloodlines, but by their faith (Josh 2:1–21; Ruth 1:6–18; 2 Kgs 5:1–15). Furthermore, the foundations for the Davidic covenant appear in the promises about kings coming from Abraham’s line (Gen 17:6, 16; 35:11; 49:10).
The Mosaic Covenant
The covenant that God made through Moses—the terms of which are laid out in the Law given at Mount Sinai—was to guide Israel in how to live under the umbrella of the Abrahamic covenant. Abraham himself lived in a way that could later be recognized as keeping the Law (Gen 26:5). The Mosaic law was the foundation for true, godly leadership, and Israel’s kings were to be rooted in it (Josh 1:7–9; Deut 17:18–20).
The Davidic Covenant
In fulfillment of the promises to the patriarchs, God established a kingdom for His people under a godly king, David. The Davidic covenant was God’s promise to David that his descendants would rule in Israel forever (2 Sam 7:16). There was an important spiritual dimension of this kingdom as well (compare 1 Chr 13:8; 28:5; 29:23; 2 Chr 9:8). The kingdom of Israel was not only a geo-political entity, it was God’s kingdom—responsibility for which was vested in the line of David.
Specific themes found throughout the rest of the Bible—such as obedience, the consequences of sin, true worship, faithfulness, proper behavior, godly leadership, and prayer—also find expression in the Historical Books. These books present in narrative form the great truths of the Bible and richly reward careful study.
David M. Howard, Jr.
Further Reading
Joshua, Book of CLBD
Ruth, Book of CLBD
Samuel, First and Second Books of CLBD
Kings, First and Second Book of CLBD
Judges, Book of CLBD
Chronicles, First and Second Book of CLBD
Ezra, Book of CLBD
Nehemiah, Book of CLBD
Esther, Book of CLBD
How to Study the Bible
As you begin to study the Bible, determine your goals, methods, and resources. If you simply want to be a more careful reader of the Bible, perhaps begin by reading a small portion of the text daily with a Bible reading plan. If you want to put serious effort into learning the Bible, you will need to make a greater commitment. Such an approach may involve several hours a week of focused study and the use of resources such as commentaries. If pursuing this level of Bible study, you will benefit from acquiring at least one Bible dictionary and two kinds of commentaries—one-volume Bible commentaries and commentary volumes corresponding to individual books of the Bible are both valuable. Using these as you study the Bible passage by passage will provide you with some of the same help you would get if you were to study the Bible in an academic institution. There are also some basics that apply.
Take seriously the importance and quality of the book you’re studying.
Although we may wish the Bible were entirely clear, students of literature would never expect that from other important books. When it comes to the Bible, it should be obvious that we have to study the Bible to understand it.
Some writing—a newspaper story, for example—might be understood by almost any mature reader. Other writing—such as a Shakespearean play—might require readers to consult dictionaries, study guides, and other aids because of the nature of the language and the subject matter. Yet other writing—a calculus textbook, for example—might require years of prior study as well as patient, focused effort to understand even a single page. The Bible contains literature at all these levels: some parts any reader can follow, some parts that require help, and some that are difficult enough that even seasoned scholars struggle to comprehend them.
This is to be expected. A book claiming to be authored by the one whose thinking and communication can range from the simplest level to far above human understanding should require serious effort from seekers of its truth. It is naïve to think that the Bible differs from other literature in being automatically comprehensible, or that our good intentions and love of God will overcome our need to study in order to appreciate the quality of the ideas He has put into writing for us.
Respect the Bible’s genres.
No serious Bible student can ignore the various genres in the Bible. Ten predominate: narrative, law, wisdom, psalms, and prophecy in the Old Testament; and gospel, parable, Acts, letter, and apocalypse in the New Testament. To understand and appreciate the Bible’s content, each of these genres must be read differently.
Consider two examples: Parables are stories told to willing students, not those who refuse to bother with what seems irrelevant to them (Matt 13:10–17). Thus, they resemble puzzles, containing punch lines that help willing readers see a truth they might have otherwise missed. Western culture is not used to parables, but with reasonable study, the parables of the New Testament reveal a great deal about the nature of God’s kingdom.
Similarly, proverbs, part of Old Testament Wisdom Literature, frequently present life’s choices in a semi-riddle fashion, which require that readers take time to understand them. Those who work out the meaning of a proverb often read it repeatedly and thus learn its content while trying to understand its point.
Respect the format.
The format of the Bible requires appreciating it as an anthology of many books, each of which has its own integrity: Readers of the Bible must start by recognizing the genre of a given book and then reading it as both a unique piece of literature and one that contributes to the overall message of the anthology. The Bible is an integrated and univocal text that benefits the reader at both the individual book level and as a whole.
Respect the historical sweep and context.
In one sense, the Bible is like a world epic: It covers the sweep of history from the very beginning of creation to the end of history when our universe is radically transformed. Biblical books always deal with something that is part of this very big picture—the story of God’s creation, its fall, His ongoing redemption of it, and/or the ultimate consummation of all the hopes of God’s people for a permanent establishment characterized by God’s goodness. Few other books, even other religious scriptures, resemble the scope of the Bible.
Respect the multidisciplinary nature of careful study.
There are several different ways to look at any piece of literature. In the case of the Bible, it pays to look from every angle that might yield a payoff. It is convenient to think of 11 such angles, or steps, in the study process:
1. Text—Seeking the original wording to avoid treating a scribal error that accidentally crept into the text as original. (Translations and study notes already depend on this scholastic research.)
2. Translation—Studying how to best convey in a modern language the concepts conveyed by the original Hebrew, Aramaic, or Greek. (Consulting multiple translations and study notes aids in this process.)
3. Grammar—Analyzing the language of the passage under consideration to be sure it is not misunderstood. (Even one-volume commentaries will often explain these issues.)
4. Lexical content—Seeking the correct meaning of individual words and phrases found in a passage. (Study notes, commentaries, and Bible software aid in this process.)
5. Form—Studying the literary category and the characteristics that make any passage special. (Study Bible articles on genre serve this process.)
6. Structure—Analyzing the way that the elements of a passage are ordered and how that affects its meaning. (A careful reading of the biblical text, especially with the aid of commentaries, makes this possible.)
7. Historical context—Studying the milieu in which the Bible was revealed, which helps yield the point of its contents. (One-volume commentaries and study notes, like those of Faithlife Study Bible, are designed to reveal this.)
8. Literary context—Studying how a passage fits within the book of which it is a part and how that affects its meaning. (Examining how a passage relates to those before and after it, and to the book as a whole, helps with this interpretive step.)
9. Biblical context—Analyzing what a passage contributes to the Bible as a whole and what the rest of the Bible contributes to understanding the passage. (Reading through the Bible as a whole, and reading passages that are cross-referenced, help with this.)
10. Application—Seeking to conform beliefs and actions to the guidance the Bible imparts. (Act on what the Bible says.)
11. Secondary literature—Examining the wisdom and diligent study of others as they have put it into books and articles. (This step should be used throughout study, but is usually best to do after attempting to draw your own conclusions, and is best done in conversation with other believers in Jesus.)
Don’t try to reinvent the wheel, and don’t go it alone.
As you read through the Bible, look up anything you don’t fully know or understand. Make use of the many good resources available to help you be a better student of the Bible than you would be on your own.
Bible dictionaries give an overview and a brief analysis of virtually any topic mentioned in the Bible, and they also connect that information to the various books and major doctrines of Scripture. Likewise, Bible commentaries explain Bible passages from an expert angle. Reading with a good study Bible provides additional help. Such resources introduce Bible books and special topics, and provide aids that explain the particular verse or passage under investigation.
Take notes, like a good reader should.
If you rely entirely on your own memory, you’ll eventually lose many valuable insights. But if you develop an external memory—your notes of observations or what you’ve learned—you will preserve them. Writing down what you have learned also forces you to express your thoughts more cogently and carefully than if you merely relied on memory. Memory fades with time, but written notes provide you with an element of stability and continuity for what you’ve learned in Bible study.
Respect the difference between words and concepts.
Most people are not aware of the difference between words and concepts, yet respecting these differences is essential to accurately interpreting the Bible. For example, in Luke 10 when Jesus illustrates what it means to “love your neighbor as yourself,” He tells the story of the Good Samaritan. This account does not include the words “love,” “neighbor,” or “self,” but the story richly includes the concept of loving neighbor as self and shows how that concept works in an exemplary illustration.
A significant aspect of Bible study is understanding the words used in the text. But even more important is understanding the concepts used—the point, significance, or meaning of a passage, verse, statement, or word.
Pray for help and study with other Christians.
Ask God for help and guidance in your Bible study. God will empower you with the desire, patience, and discernment to recognize the simple truths of the Bible and understand the complicated concepts. In addition, read the Bible in Christian community, as that is a critical component of growing as a Christian.
Douglas Stuart
Further Reading
The Formation of the Old Testament
The Formation of the New Testament
The Gospel of John and the Johannine Letters
Biblical Criticism CLBD
The Major Prophets
In English Bibles, the books that belong to the Major Prophets are Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel. This grouping stems from the Septuagint, the ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, which became the Scriptures most often used by the early church. Unlike the first three books, however, Daniel is a work of apocalyptic literature (like the New Testament book of Revelation). While apocalypses resemble prophecy, these genres have significant differences; for this reason both Daniel and Revelation are discussed in the article “Apocalyptic Literature.” This article focuses on Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel.
Historical and Social Contexts
The books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel span Israel’s all-important historical hinge: the exiles of Judah to Babylon (597 and 586 bc) and the people’s subsequent returns to their homeland (beginning in 538 bc). Each book sounds God’s warning of impending judgment while foreseeing the hope of restoration. The decimation of Israel’s temple, the deposing of their king and loss of nationhood, and their deportation to a foreign land would spell the end of most peoples and their religion, but the messages of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel made clear that Yahweh’s purposes will prevail, and that through these events He will demonstrate His justice and mercy.
Isaiah
The scope of Isaiah is enormous, both in length and time period. The subject matter of the book spans the pre-exilic (Isa 1–39), exilic (Isa 40–55), and postexilic (Isa 56–66) periods. Isaiah’s ministry takes place in late eighth-century Jerusalem before the exile, and begins by focusing on King David and Mount Zion, the sacred mountain of God’s temple.
In the chapter closing this first section, Isaiah warns King Hezekiah that “all that is in your house … shall be carried off to Babylon” (Isa 39:6). The next chapter leaps about 150 years forward, addressing God’s people in Babylonian exile (see Isa 48:20) and offering comfort to Jerusalem by announcing that its term of punishment has come to an end (Isa 40:1–2). Thus, Isaiah 1–39 predicts the exile, and Isaiah 40–55 predicts Israel’s return. Signaling another shift in audience, Isaiah 56 refers to Yahweh’s altar and temple on Mount Zion, which points to the Second Temple period after the exiles have returned from Babylon.
Jeremiah
Jeremiah appears roughly two generations after Isaiah (ca. 627 bc). While his hometown, Anathoth, was within walking distance of Jerusalem, it lay within the territory of Benjamin in a world more at home with the traditions inherited from northern Israel. Jeremiah’s ministry began in the waning years of the Assyrian Empire, when Judah enjoyed a brief generation of independence. The discovery of “the book of the law” (likely an early version of the book of Deuteronomy) within the temple archives led to the reforms of King Josiah: the centralization of the nation’s worship at the Jerusalem temple, the elimination of idols, and the promotion of the worship of Yahweh alone (2 Kgs 22–23). Many of Jeremiah’s oracles echo these themes.
After Josiah’s death, Jeremiah delivered his well-known temple sermon (Jer 7:1–15; 26:1–6), indicting the people for falling away from Yahweh’s law and threatening both the temple’s destruction and the people’s exile from the land. A few years later Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians became the new superpower in the Fertile Crescent, and Jeremiah warned Judah that God would use Babylon to enact His judgment on the nation’s faithlessness. Because Jeremiah advocated surrender, Judah’s political and military authorities accused him of treachery. Even after the Babylonian invasion vindicated his message, he was forced to flee to Egypt.
Ezekiel
Given his occupation as a priest (Ezek 1:3), Ezekiel’s social and religious world centers on Israel’s priestly traditions. The word of Yahweh first came to him while he was exiled in Babylon. Part of the first group to be deported from Jerusalem in 597 bc (2 Kgs 24:10–16), Ezekiel decried the idolatry practiced in the Jerusalem temple and predicted Jerusalem’s captivity. On hearing that the city had fallen to the Babylonians (Ezek 33:21), his message turned to one of hope and restoration.
Theological Perspectives in the Prophets
The Character of Yahweh
Each book presents a distinctive perspective on Yahweh’s character. For Isaiah, Yahweh is, above all, “the Holy One of Israel,” a title that prevails throughout the book. In his powerful vision (Isa 6), he hears the seraphim singing, “Holy, holy, holy is Yahweh of hosts!” Thereafter, he sees life and its crises from a different perspective than that of his contemporaries (Isa 8:13). This divine title reflects the tension conveyed in his prophecies, namely that Yahweh is the Almighty Creator who is free and sovereign, yet He has chosen to bind Himself to Israel with a covenant. Israel shows itself to be untrusting and faithless to the covenant, and thus deserving of Yahweh’s anger.
In Isaiah 40–55, the section addressed to the exiles in Babylon, there is a remarkable development in Israel’s understanding of Yahweh: the monotheism (belief in only one God) implicit in Israel’s religion now takes center stage. Given the hopeless situation of the Jewish exiles living in the shadow of a world superpower, they could have never imagined that another foreign conqueror would “shepherd” them back to their homeland and underwrite the rebuilding of their temple. Yahweh’s use of Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, indicates His sovereignty over all nations (Isa 44:24–45:7). As argued in the trial speeches against the nations in Isaiah, the rise of Cyrus was unforeseen by the royal counselors and diviners of the Babylonian court, thus rendering their so-called gods speechless, useless nothings (e.g., Isa 41:21–29; 44:6–8; 45:18–25).
More so than the other Major Prophets, Jeremiah entwines his theology with his own life story. From the moment of his call he understands himself to be a prophetic ambassador—even if sent with an unpopular message (Jer 1:1–11). While other “prophets” had messages the people wanted to hear, Jeremiah was uniquely privy to Yahweh’s council (Jer 23:9–22). This situation bred conflict, including opposition from kings, prophets, and the people—and especially struggles with Yahweh Himself. Adopting the lament form (as in the Psalms), Jeremiah expresses his disappointment in no uncertain terms. While he discovers Yahweh to be true, he also learns that being His servant—especially in the troubling times of Babylonian invasion—is difficult (see Jer 12:1–6; 15:10–21). In his message for the people Jeremiah presents Yahweh as their liberator, as the exodus shows, but by their repeated faithlessness they forfeit His protection and incur His judgment (Jer 2:4–19). Nevertheless, he later declares Yahweh’s ultimate intention: “ ‘For I know the plans that I am planning concerning you,’ declares Yahweh, ‘plans for prosperity and not for harm, to give you a future and a hope’ ” (Jer 29:11).
As a priest, Ezekiel’s theology centers on God’s presence in sacred space. While Jeremiah, along with the book of Deuteronomy, speaks of the temple as the place where Yahweh’s “name” dwells (Jer 7:10–14), Ezekiel prefers to speak of the temple as the place where Yahweh’s “glory” manifests itself. As Isaiah’s vision of Yahweh’s heavenly court defined his theology (Isa 6), so Ezekiel’s opening vision of the “appearance of the likeness of the glory of Yahweh” (Ezek 1:28) defines his theology and ministry. Foregrounded in this vision is the good news that Yahweh, unlike other ancient Near Eastern deities, is transcendent and not obliged to a particular place. The ominous news is that He is free to move away from rebellious Jerusalem.
Israel’s Sin and Yahweh’s Judgment
The Major Prophets regularly address the sin of God’s people and the nature of His judgment. Early in his ministry, Isaiah denounced social abuses, but his vision of the Holy One of Israel in His heavenly court (Isa 6) reveals a strange commission to harden the hearts of the people until the time of the exile. The meaning of this saying unfolds within a literary unit known as “Isaiah’s Memoirs” (Isa 6:1–8:18, dating to around 742–733 bc). Isaiah begins to execute this commission by offering an oracle of salvation conditional on trusting in Yahweh. King Ahaz, who simply feigns piety, chooses rather to trust in a political means of “salvation”: He calls on Assyria to rescue him from the two kings threatening to invade and depose him (see also 2 Kgs 16). As a result, the kingdom of Judah becomes a vassal to the Assyrian Empire.
For Isaiah, however, once a person has “seen” the Lord of Hosts and the Holy One of Israel, all other fears pale in comparison to the fear of God (Isa 8:12–13). Thus, by offering a promise of salvation that the house of David rejects, “the heart of this people” is hardened to the prophetic word (Isa 6:10). He then seals his memoirs as “testimony” and a “sign” (Isa 8:16–18). The remainder of his ministry focuses on the issue of trust: He promotes patiently trusting in the God whose temple resides on Mount Zion over against the leadership’s anxious trust in political and military alliances formed against the Assyrian Empire (e.g., Isa 8:18).
Roughly 20 years later, the next phase of Isaiah’s ministry (713–711 bc) addresses the possibility of Jerusalem joining a coalition with Ashdod and Egypt in order to rebel against the Assyrian Empire. Once again, Isaiah urges the Jerusalem leadership to resist this political means of deliverance and instead trust that the God of Zion will protect Jerusalem (e.g., Isa 14:28–32; 18:1–7; 20:1–6).
The final phase of Isaiah’s ministry focuses on trying to dissuade the Jerusalem leadership from joining yet another rebel alliance against Assyria after the death of their king, Sargon II, in 705 bc (e.g., Isa 30:1–17; 31:1–9). King Hezekiah evidently rejects Isaiah’s counsel and champions the rebellion. After King Sennacherib retaliates in 701 bc with an invasion of Judah and threatens to overtake Jerusalem, Isaiah steps forth and offers Yahweh’s 11th-hour oracle of rescue that Jerusalem will be spared (Isa 37:21–35). In the end, however, Hezekiah’s courting of Babylonian ambassadors during this Assyrian crisis results in Yahweh’s subsequent judgment of exile to Babylon (Isa 39:1–8).
Being more at home with traditions popular among the northern tribes, Jeremiah addresses the sin of God’s people differently than Isaiah. He interprets events through the lens of Yahweh’s providence during the exodus and wilderness periods (e.g., Jer 2:1–8) and Yahweh’s revelation of the law (e.g., Jer 7:8–10). Jeremiah indicts Judah for their faithlessness to “the fountain of living waters,” (Yahweh) and their defection to “cracked cisterns” (other gods and their idols; Jer 2:13). While Isaiah charged his generation with their failure to trust God in the face of Assyrian imperialism, Jeremiah charges his generation living on the eve of Babylonian rule with misplaced trust in the temple of Yahweh on Mount Zion, presuming that it should guarantee refuge from foreign invasion (Jer 7:1–11). Mount Zion cannot provide refuge if the people continue to disregard the laws given by Yahweh on Mount Sinai, including the Ten Commandments and others found in the book of Deuteronomy. While Jeremiah endorses the Davidic covenant, he clearly understands it to be conditional and for the purpose of ensuring social justice, especially for “the immigrant, the orphan, and the widow” (Jer 22:1–5). His “report card” on the recent Davidic kings is particularly scathing—with the exception of Josiah—and signals the end of the Davidic dynasty (Jer 22:11–30). Because Jeremiah understands Babylon to be Yahweh’s agent of judgment on Judah, he advocates surrender, rather than resistance, and so is labeled a traitor (Jer 27:1–15).
While Ezekiel indicts the people of Judah for social injustices, he particularly focuses on their “profaning” what is holy, as he assesses them from his priestly perspective. Idolatry stands center stage as the sin of Judah, found even at the temple itself (e.g., Ezek 6; 8–9; 14; 20; 23). In addition, there is profanation of Sabbath observance (e.g., Ezek 20:12–24; 22:8, 26; 23:38). Yahweh’s judgment, therefore, takes the form of the departure of His glory from the temple (Ezek 10:1–22).
Israel’s Future Hope
A remaining concern of the Major Prophets is Israel’s future hope. Isaiah’s vision for Israel’s future in Isaiah 1–39 foresees an exalted Mount Zion, to which all nations make pilgrimage (Isa 2:1–5), and a new David, who will actually uphold the kingdom “with justice and righteousness” (Isa 9:6–7; see 11:1–5). In Isa 40–55, the promises originally given to David are transferred to the people of Zion (Isa 55:3–5; 52:1–2), and Yahweh’s designated “messiah” (or “anointed one”) and “shepherd” is Cyrus, a Persian king (Isa 44:28–45:1). While Cyrus is Yahweh’s agent for the restoration of Jerusalem and its temple, His agent for the spiritual restoration of Israel is a figure named “my Servant,” as described in the Servant Songs (Isa 42:1–9; 49:1–12; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12). Unlike Cyrus who will “come on officials … as the potter treads clay” (Isa 41:25), this Servant will not even crush “a broken reed” (Isa 42:3). He will even suffer rejection and abuse, and bear “the sin of many” (Isa 53:12). Moreover, his mission is not only to bring Israel back to Yahweh; Yahweh promises, “I will give you as a light to the nations, to be my salvation to the end of the earth” (Isa 49:6).
The New Testament applies these Servant passages to both Jesus (Matt 8:17; 12:18–21; Luke 22:37; John 12:38; Acts 8:32–33; 1 Pet 2:22–25) and the Church (Acts 13:47; Rom 8:33–34). The audience of Isaiah 40–55 must have wondered how they could ever return to their homeland while captives in the land of Babylon. And so the prophet appeals to the precedent of the exodus: As Yahweh delivered the Hebrew slaves from the superpower of their time, so He will do again in a glorious second exodus. In the third section of the book of Isaiah, Isaiah 56–66, the prophet envisions a new identity for the people of God, defined not by ethnicity but by keeping Sabbath and Yahweh’s covenant (Isa 56:1–8). As a result, Yahweh declares that His “house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples,” thus including Gentiles. The prophet also relativizes the centrality of the temple by noting that Yahweh specially dwells with those who are humble and contrite of spirit (Isa 56:7; 57:15; see 66:1–2).
Like Isaiah, Jeremiah foresees a new David as a key agent bringing Israel’s restoration (Jer 23:1–8). But as the Sinai covenant was his principal criterion for assessing the people’s sin, so a new covenant is central to his vision of the future (Jer 31:31–34). Yahweh takes the initiative to remedy the catch-22 of the human condition: Although the human “heart is deceitful more than anything else” (Jer 17:9) and the people of God have broken Yahweh’s covenant (Jer 11:10), Yahweh freely decrees a new covenant (Jer 31:31–34). What is distinctly new is not its contents but its medium: “I will put my law in their inward parts and on their hearts I will write it” (Jer 31:33). Here is the clearest statement in the Hebrew Bible that God’s instruction can be interiorized by God Himself, resulting in true inner transformation.
A new temple occupies the center stage of Ezekiel’s vision for restoration (Ezek 40–48), just as might be expected based on his priestly background. Unlike Isaiah 56, however, Ezekiel’s vision excludes “foreigners who are uncircumcised of heart and … of flesh” (Ezek 44:6–9). Like Isaiah and Jeremiah, Ezekiel foresees a new David in Israel’s restoration (Ezek 34:20–24; 37:24–28). While he does call this ruler “king,” his preferred titles reflect subordination: “servant,” “shepherd,” and “prince.” Similar to Jeremiah, Ezekiel also promises a new covenant, though his articulation uses priestly images (“I will sprinkle on you pure water,” Ezek 36:24–29). Not only will Yahweh put His law on His people’s heart, He will replace the heart of stone with a heart of flesh and His spirit within will ensure that they walk in His statutes, thus making them truly human.
Anticipation of a New and Better Covenant
In anticipation of the destruction of Jerusalem, the Major Prophets deconstruct the ancient Near Eastern cultural assumption that the patron deity of Israel is in any way beholden to His people or subject to their fate. Yahweh is free, yet He has chosen to pledge Himself to His people in a covenant relationship. Yahweh expects a just society of authentic worshipers—a nation that expresses worship through obedience to Yahweh’s moral and spiritual instruction, not through mere ritual observance. Even though His people violate these agreements, Yahweh freely decrees comfort and restoration. And this restoration does not merely reinstate the original promises and conditions—it heightens them. He promises a new and better “David,” a Servant who will suffer and bear the sin of many, a new and better covenant, and divine presence that dwells immediately with those who have contrite and renewed hearts. The Prophets also clarify that Yahweh is not simply the God of Israel but the only true God and thus the God of all peoples. In turn, “the people of God” are redefined to include any—including Gentiles—who would embrace Yahweh’s gracious covenant promises.
Craig C. Broyles
Further Reading
Isaiah, Book of CLBD
Jeremiah, Book of CLBD
Ezekiel, Book of CLBD
Jeremiah the Prophet CLBD
The Minor Prophets
The 12 books of the Minor Prophets cover a period of roughly 300 years, approximately from 760 bc (Amos) to 450 bc (Malachi). Except for Jonah, the books all identify the author in a heading. The arrangement of the books in the biblical canon is chronological, with the exception of Joel and Obadiah.
Dates of the Minor Prophets | |
Eighth Century bc | Hosea, Amos, Jonah, and Micah |
Seventh Century bc | Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah |
Sixth Century bc | Joel, Obadiah, Haggai, and Zechariah |
Fifth Century bc | Malachi |
Although it’s possible that Joel and Obadiah, which flank the book of Amos, were written early—following the canonical order (in the ninth century)—evidence in the books themselves points to a later date for both, probably the sixth century bc. Both Joel and Obadiah speak of the exile of Judah in 586 bc as a past event (e.g., Joel 3:1–3, 6; Obad 10–16). Their placement with Amos is likely due to their similar themes. Joel and Amos picture Yahweh roaring like a lion from Zion (Joel 3:16; Amos 1:2). Obadiah prophesies the conquest of Edom, an event anticipated in Amos 9:12. As for the book of Jonah, it’s uncertain when or by whom it was written—but its title character, the Prophet Jonah, lived in the first half of the eighth century (2 Kgs 14:25).
In the Hebrew Bible, the Minor Prophets are treated as a unit referred to as The Twelve. While they share similar themes, these 12 books are distinct literary units with distinct messages.
Contexts and Themes
Hosea
Hosea prophesied during the eighth century bc, an eventful period in the history of Israel and Judah. In 722 bc, the Assyrians conquered the northern kingdom of Israel and took the people into exile.
Hosea’s message focuses on the northern kingdom, especially their idolatry. In an effort to produce children and enjoy agricultural abundance, the people worshiped the Canaanite fertility god Baal. Yahweh compares Israel’s unfaithfulness to adultery. As a living symbol of their lack of fidelity, He commanded Hosea to marry Gomer, a woman who was unfaithful to him. To illustrate His determination to win back Israel, He required Hosea to reclaim his adulterous wife.
The book of Hosea paints vivid portraits of Yahweh as a moth, bone decay, a hunter, a lion, a leopard, and a bear. Yahweh threatens to kill His people’s children, rip the people open, and tear them apart (Hos 9:11–17; 13:7–8). At the same time, in contrast to these disturbing images Yahweh is depicted as a lover who romantically pursues His wayward first love (Hos 2:14). We glimpse the heart of God and view His great compassion for His people. As He contemplates His severe judgment upon Israel, His heart goes out to them, and He relents from sending calamity in its full force (Hos 11:8–9).
Joel
The occasion for the prophecy was a locust invasion in the promised land that had devastated their crops. The destruction was a foreshadowing of a worse judgment to come if the people did not repent of their sin. Apparently they did change their ways; Yahweh relented from judgment and promised to restore the people. He envisioned a day when He would pour out His Spirit upon the entire covenant community.
Amos
Amos delivered his message to the northern kingdom of Israel around 760 bc, warning them of impending judgment because they had violated Yahweh’s covenant. Focusing his message on the socioeconomic oppression prevalent in Israelite society, Amos is the first prophet to speak of the day of Yahweh (Amos 5:18–20). The people expected it to be a time when Yahweh would defeat their enemies and usher in a new era of blessing; but Amos talks about a day of dark judgment for the people themselves as well. The book ends on a positive note, with the promise of a renewed Davidic dynasty and restored blessing.
Obadiah
The date of this short prophecy is debated, but the disaster described in Obadiah 10–14 appears to be Judah’s exile in 586 bc, which the Edomites exploited to their advantage. Obadiah announced Yahweh would avenge His people by judging Edom as well as other nations for their mistreatment of Judah. He would also restore a remnant of His exiled people to their city and land.
Jonah
The book of Jonah is distinctive among the Minor Prophets; there is no heading identifying its author, and the book is a biographical narrative of God’s dealings with Jonah rather than a collection of speeches by the prophet. We cannot be sure what historical or social conditions prompted this book, but it depicts a disobedient, reluctant prophet who stands in contrast to the sinful but ultimately repentant foreigners described in the book. Unlike Jonah, the sailors and the Ninevites responded humbly to Yahweh. The book shows how the sovereign God, before whom all nations are morally responsible, does not wish to destroy sinners but offers them an opportunity to repent and experience His mercy.
Micah
A contemporary of Isaiah, Micah prophesied during the second half of the eighth century bc. His message is an accusation of social injustice committed by the southern kingdom of Judah. Micah announced that Jerusalem would be destroyed, but this doom was postponed because of Hezekiah’s repentance (compare Mic 3:12; Jer 26:17–19). The people would be exiled to Babylon, but Yahweh, in fulfillment of His promise to Abraham, would eventually forgive and restore His exiled people (Gen 12). He would also reestablish David’s dynasty under an ideal Davidic ruler (2 Sam 7), who would protect the covenant community from all would-be conquerors.
Nahum
Nahum prophesied sometime between the fall of Thebes in 663 bc, which had already occurred (Nah 3:8–10), and the fall of Nineveh in 612 bc, which he anticipated. Yahweh would bring about the fall of Nineveh, and the whole Assyrian empire, because of its violent imperialism (Nah 3:1).
Habakkuk
Habakkuk prophesied around the late seventh century bc, prior to the downfall of Jerusalem in 586 bc. In a dialogue with Yahweh, Habakkuk lamented the injustice he saw in Judah; Yahweh announced He would use the Babylonians as His instrument of judgment. Habakkuk called Babylon an arrogant, cruel nation, but Yahweh assured Habakkuk that His justice would be satisfied and Babylon would be punished. After receiving a vision, the prophet expressed faith in Yahweh’s ability to sustain His followers through difficult times.
Zephaniah
Zephaniah prophesied in the late seventh century, prior to the fall of Nineveh in 612 bc, an event he anticipated (Zeph 2:13–15). His message focuses on the “day of Yahweh,” a day of judgment against both Judah and the nations, with a purification that culminates in worldwide worship of Yahweh and the restoration and moral transformation of the covenant community.
Haggai
Haggai’s four messages are dated to 520 bc, the second year of the reign of the Persian King Darius. Yahweh challenged those who had returned from exile to rebuild the temple, and He promised to glorify the temple, provide agricultural abundance, and restore the Davidic dynasty (compare 2 Sam 7).
Zechariah
The authorship and unity of the book of Zechariah is a matter of debate. The three messages in Zechariah 1–8 are specifically dated to 520–518 bc and attributed to Zechariah (Zech 1:1, 7; 7:1). However, the headings of the two oracles in Zechariah 9–14 do not identify the author; both say “the burden of the word of Yahweh,” the same phrase that appears at the beginning of the book of Malachi (Mal 1:1). These chapters may have been written by an anonymous author as a bridge between Zechariah and Malachi.1 Given their canonical placement, however, it seems more likely these oracles come from later in Zechariah’s ministry.2
Zechariah urged those who had returned from exile to show their repentance through obedience, reminding them that Yahweh places a higher priority on obedience than on religious ritual. The prophet envisioned a time when Yahweh would gather all of the exiles, make Jerusalem the center of His worldwide rule, and restore the Davidic dynasty. In the era to come, the king and the priesthood would cooperate fully in carrying out Yahweh’s purposes for the covenant community.
Malachi
The date of Malachi is not certain, but the reference to a governor places the book in the period of Persian rule (Mal 1:8). Parallels with Ezra—Nehemiah (references to marriages with foreigners, failure to pay tithes, and social injustice) suggest Malachi prophesied in the mid-fifth century.
The book contains six disputations in which Yahweh addresses complaints from His people. Malachi emphasizes Yahweh’s commitment to His people and the obedience He expects from them. Yahweh promises to eliminate the wicked and to form the righteous remnant into a purified covenant community.
Contribution to the Canon
While the Minor Prophets are 12 distinct books, several major themes emerge from the corpus as a whole and contribute to the larger biblical narrative.
The Minor Prophets assume that Yahweh of Israel is the king of the world and has absolute authority over the nations of the earth. He uses some nations (such as Assyria and Babylon) as His instruments of judgment, yet He also holds them accountable for their mistreatment of His people (Amos 1–2). Yet He displays great concern for even the most evil of nations, and will ultimately include all nations within His earthly kingdom (Isa 2:1–4; compare the themes of Jonah and Zephaniah).
Yahweh’s covenant relationship with His people is also a major theme in the Minor Prophets. The eighth-century prophets accused the people of breaking the law established by Moses and threatened them with judgment based on the covenant curses (Deut 28). The eighth-century prophets also anticipated a time when Yahweh would reestablish the Davidic dynasty and restore its former glory (Hos 3:5; Amos 9:12; Mic 5:2; compare Hag 2:23; Zech 3:8; 6:12; 12:8–10; Jer 23:5; 33:15). The postexilic prophets made it clear that Yahweh was still faithful to His covenant promises established with Abraham (Gen 12)—and that the returning exiles were called to be faithful in return. While Micah is the only one of the 12 books to refer directly to the Abrahamic promise, other prophets picture the ultimate fulfillment of its blessings (Hos 1:10; Amos 9:15; Mic 7:18–20; Zech 8:13).
Robert Chisholm
The Pastoral Letters
Since about the 18th century, the letters to 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, and Titus have been collectively called the “Pastoral Letters.” They had already, in the early centuries of the church, been grouped together as letters to individuals (rather than to churches) that addressed matters of discipline and order in the church. While this grouping may have been natural, it has sometimes led to a diminished appreciation not only of the individuality of each letter, but also of their respective contributions to Pauline theology. Today, more people recognize that the Pastoral Letters must be read in light of the elements that make them each unique as well as those uniting them.
Authorship
The Pastoral Letters belong to the group of nt documents with unidentified origination and authorship. While their authenticity has never been seriously doubted, scholarly opinion holds that the Pastorals are pseudonymous, or attributed to someone besides the actual author. For some time, it was typical to divide the Pauline Letters into the “undisputed” Pauline writings and the “disputed” letters, which acquired a secondary status. In the 21st century, though, the possibility that some of the 13 letters traditionally attributed to Paul were actually written in Paul’s name is less problematic in the church and academy. Letters written in the name of an apostle are deemed useful and authoritative for the contemporary church, just as they were by the church fathers in the early centuries—even though it’s impossible to be certain of their authorship.
Many scholars believe that the letters were written by someone other than Paul who wished to secure the place of Pauline tradition in the later church. This perspective draws on several factors for support. The vocabulary and writing style differ between the Pastorals and the undisputed Pauline letters. Some significant second-century collections of biblical writings, including the earliest collection of Paul’s letters, omit them, and Evidence doesn’t prove that the early fathers knew them. The way the Pastorals engage opponents also differs from the main Pauline Letters. Finally, the church situations and the leadership structures depicted in 1 Timothy and Titus differ from earlier Pauline letters and Acts; and the Christian existence depicted by the author(s) of the disputed letters seems to portray a church that has settled comfortably into the world—lacking the vitality of eschatological expectation that characterizes Paul’s earlier letters. If Pauline theology was under fire like this argument says, one can imagine a Pauline aficionado or student reshaping Paul’s writings so that he might serve as the authority on the gospel. Paul’s letters contain ample evidence to suggest that his missionary activity and teaching were viewed as controversial. The Pastoral Letters, concerned as they are with refuting and correcting false teachers and stabilizing churches in Ephesus and Crete, might be read as defending Paul’s authority even after his direct influence had ended.
This view of the letters’ authorship may be challenged: Arguments about word usage and style depend on unproven assertions about “Paul’s style” and letter-writing process, such as whether he always employed a secretary, wrote on his own, cowrote with mission colleagues, or varied his style to suit theme, audience, and intended recipient. External evidence does, however, affirm that the letters to Timothy and Titus were accepted as Pauline in the early centuries, while others who claimed apostolic authorship were rejected as fakes. When Paul’s letters to churches are compared with the Pastoral Letters, differences in the way opponents were engaged might be explained by these latter letters being written primarily to individuals to validate their roles as Paul’s representatives within the churches of Ephesus and Crete. The so-called “official” structure of the churches was already emerging (Phil 1:1), and Acts’ account of Paul might be read as validating a more developed church organization (Acts 14:23; 20:17, 28). A careful investigation of the concept of Christian existence in the Pastorals reveals a vibrant theology of the life of faith, even if it is expressed differently from Paul’s letters to the churches.
Gaps in our knowledge still exist—for instance, on the mechanics and method of letter writing and the thought processes, debates, and politics leading to “canonization.” These letters are best appreciated as confronting churches linked with the Pauline mission—such as those in Ephesus and on Crete—with a fresh and compelling expression of Paul’s gospel and theology, either at the close of Paul’s historical mission or shortly after.
Context and Background
The dates and settings of the letters depend on their authorship. The letters assume certain situations within the Pauline mission and corpus. Although 1 Timothy and Titus might have been written to aid the coworkers on missions to Ephesus and Crete (and were perhaps located within the scope of Paul’s activity in Asia and Macedonia mentioned in Acts 20:1–4), they are more traditionally placed at the end of Paul’s ministry during the period between Paul’s release from a Roman prison (Acts 28) and his rearrest. Today, it is best to treat the three letters as each addressing a unique time and set of circumstances.
In the case of 1 Timothy, written to assist Timothy in Ephesus at some time after Paul’s last recorded visit to this church (Acts 20:17–38, which predicts upheaval and apostasy), two community leaders (Hymenaeus and Alexander; 1 Tim 1:19–20) had led the church into heresy. The false doctrine is not well defined, but the reference to “myths and endless genealogies” and the descriptor “teachers of the law” (1 Tim 1:4, 7) suggest a Jewish component. Combined with this was possibly a misunderstanding about the times and the resurrection of believers (more clearly seen in 2 Tim 2:18), akin to the confusion associated with 1 Corinthians, which was affecting Christian life and behavior. A strain of spirit-enthusiasm took the shape of ascetic denial—rejection of marriage and of certain foods (1 Tim 4:3). The letter’s focus on the character of leadership and the need to select bishops/elders and deacons with care suggests the apostasy was a product of the false teaching of some elders (1 Tim 3:1–13; 5:17–25).
The Letter to Titus addresses, in a general way, problems associated with the immature churches on the island of Crete. The impression given is of churches not yet well grounded in the apostolic faith, still in need of leadership (Titus 1:5), with the tendency both to absorb unusual elements of Jewish or Judaizing doctrine (Titus 1:14) and to cling to aspects of “Cretan” behavior that were incompatible with the ethical demands of the Christian faith (Titus 1:10–13).
Second Timothy does not name a specific location, but the difficulties linked with Ephesus in 1 Timothy seem to linger (see 2 Tim 2:14–20; 3:1–10), suggesting Timothy’s mission there either was not yet complete or had ended in failure. In any case, Paul, imprisoned and anticipating a death sentence (2 Tim 4:6–18), now instructs Timothy to hand this activity over to others (2 Tim 2:1–2) and make his way to Rome (2 Tim 4:11). The letter as a whole may be framed as a testament, designed to depict Timothy as Paul’s successor, charged with carrying on Paul’s mission.
Purpose and Significance
To some degree, each of the three letters seeks to reinforce a traditional understanding of salvation and the manner of living that is appropriate to life in Christ (1 Tim 1:15; 2:4–6; 2 Tim 1:9–10; 2:8–13; Titus 2:11–14; 3:4–7). Authentic Christian existence (faith and its corresponding outward demonstration in life), in contrast to the lifestyle associated with false teaching, is depicted with the term and concept of “godliness” (1 Tim 2:2; 3:16; 4:7, 8; 6:3, 5, 6, 11; 2 Tim 3:5; Titus 1:1; see the adverb in 2 Tim 3:12; Titus 2:12).
Beyond the term “godliness,” the letters share a distinct vocabulary and key themes, but the author modulated these to address the specific needs of each letter. For example, the letters emphasize the role of both God and Christ as “Savior” (Titus 1:3–4; 3:4, 6; on Christ, see 2 Tim 1:10; on God, see 1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; 4:10; Titus 2:10, 13). In this way, the authorized gospel and traditional understanding of salvation are linked specifically to God/Christ, and a counter-claim is made against false notions both within the world of the Roman Empire (where Caesar was regarded as a god, with salvation as the mode of life under his reign) and the stories that Crete added to this Roman worldview.
Salvation in the present world is then given specific contours through the theme of “epiphany” (“appearance”), a term also used in connection with the emperor, which is applied to describe the second coming of Christ (1 Tim 6:14; 2 Tim 4:1, 8) as well as His past “appearance” on earth (2 Tim 1:10; Titus 2:11; 3:4). By framing the present age with a single word, the claim is made that the historical past “epiphany” introduced salvation, and the future “epiphany” will complete it. Thus the life of salvation between these poles is fully under the influence of “epiphany.” Moreover, salvation and other matters of theology and eschatology are, from the standpoint of human experience, as yet incomplete; exploration into this mystery is linked to the apostolic gospel as opposed to other avenues of speculation.
But while the letters share this feature of theology, their Christologies—or how each depicts Jesus Christ—are different. First Timothy concentrates on the human experience and nature of Jesus (1 Tim 1:15; 2:5–6; 3:16; 6:13–14). Titus, on the other hand, elevates Jesus Christ by making Him cosharer in the title savior (Titus 1:3–4; 3:4, 6) and by expounding a very high Christology in Titus 2:11–14, where Christ’s future “appearance” is defined as the embodiment of divine glory (or where He is possibly described as God). Christology in 2 Timothy assumes another focus altogether, presenting Jesus as the paradigm of suffering and vindication. This is done by a pronounced use of the title “Lord” as compared with the other two letters (16 times; compare 5 times in 1 Tim, none in Titus). It is associated with Jesus in His resurrection: He is the object of the Church’s faith (2 Tim 2:22) and the believer’s source of wisdom (2 Tim 2:7) and Christian identity (2 Tim 2:19, 24; 4:22). It is the Lord who delivers (2 Tim 3:11; 4:17–18), who vindicates His servants (2 Tim 4:8, 14; compare 2 Tim 1:16, 18), and who, as judge, will rule in His eschatological kingdom (2 Tim 4:1, 8, 14). All of this supports the instructions to Timothy to continue on in faithfulness—following both Paul, who is suffering, and Christ, who has suffered and been vindicated.
In addition to reestablishing theological balance in this way, 1 Timothy and Titus are both concerned with orderly oversight in the churches: restoring an older church to its former good order (1 Tim) and forming orderly churches out of newly planted and struggling Christian communities (Titus). First Timothy 3:1–7 and Titus 1:5–9 contain similar instructions about leaders and language. Varying the language between bishop (overseer) and elder (see also 1 Tim 5:17–25), these passages instruct Timothy and Titus in the character and lifestyle that should be evident in church leaders. While gifts such as teaching are mentioned, these instructions’ emphasis on ethics and reputation is noteworthy.
The purpose of 2 Timothy, which shares key concepts and convictions, differs markedly from the other two Pastoral Letters. Often held to be most like an authentic Pauline letter, it is clearly more personal in tone and instruction. This letter envisions Timothy as the successor of the apostle, whose execution is near, and instructs him to overcome fear and struggle and remain true to the apostolic faith.
The Pastoral Letters and the Biblical Narrative as a Whole
Perhaps the best way to understand the Pastoral Letters within the entire biblical narrative of redemption is to regard them as chapters in the Pauline story. Each Pauline letter is a record of the apostle’s engagement with a particular church, and as such, each is unique. Paul presents God’s redemptive interest in His creation and his gospel according to the issues that emerge in each church. First Timothy and Titus are similar in that they contribute two Pauline responses to church situations that are delivered through the mediation of a coworker. In this, they fill in what otherwise might be a gap in the biblical narrative—how Paul’s mission continued through coworkers. These letters also show the Pauline response to two situations that would become typical in the church: that of a church transitioning from its first to its second generation (e.g., Ephesus), and that of a fledgling church needing to decisively break away from negative cultural influences (e.g., Crete). Second Timothy, with its marked differences, is the final chapter of the Pauline story, hinting at how Paul’s mission would continue through his followers and endorsing the unique Pauline mission in the world.
Philip H. Towner
Further Reading:
Paul’s Letters
The collection of Paul’s letters is the literal center of the New Testament, bracketed by the Gospels and Acts on one side and the General Letters and Revelation on the other. The Pauline letters make up roughly 24 percent of the nt and historically have constituted the main source for Christian theological instruction and exhortation to discipleship. All Christian theology, preaching, and practice must engage deeply with Paul’s letters.
These documents are not treatises or sermons; they are letters, and they represent pastoral correspondence between the apostle and several young churches in the eastern Mediterranean. They are rooted in the local situation of the churches they address and in the particular context of Paul’s mission to the Gentiles. Reading these letters is a bit like listening to one side of a conversation or like reading someone else’s mail.
Authorship
Authorship of some of the 13 letters attributed to Paul is debated among modern scholars. Today, the letters usually are categorized as the undisputed letters (Romans, 1–2 Corinthians, Galatians, 1 Thessalonians, Philippians, Philemon), disputed letters (2 Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians), and pseudonymous letters (1–2 Timothy, Titus). Doubts about Pauline authorship of some of these letters are based on differences in vocabulary, theological themes, and alleged post-Pauline settings for the letters. Yet these arguments are not decisive, especially if Paul used coauthors or secretaries in many of his letters, and if he was broader in his literary and theological repertoire than ordinarily recognized. Although there is current debate, the early church received all 13 letters as authentically Pauline and circulated them as such; some in the early church also attributed Hebrews to Paul, but this is improbable.
Context and Background
Paul’s ministry takes place within the three-decade span between his conversion around ad 33 and his execution in Rome around ad 64. During this time, Paul engaged in three distinct missionary journeys to Asia Minor and Greece. He contended with opposition from local Jewish groups and civic officials, as well as from a faction of Jewish Christian proselytizers who wanted to bring his Gentile converts in line with Judaism by forcing them to be circumcised. Key events that occurred during Paul’s time and shaped his ministry include the reigns of Claudius, Caligula, and Nero as Roman Emperors; the rise of anti-Roman zealotry in Judaea (ad 40s–50s); the beginning of the Christian mission to non-Jews launched from Antioch (late ad 40s); the Jerusalem council (ad 50); missionary journeys across the Aegean Sea (ad 50–57); his return to Jerusalem with a collection of funds for famine relief, along with his subsequent arrest (ad 58); his journey to Rome (ad 59–60); and his imprisonment, release, second imprisonment, and execution in Rome (ad 60–64).
It is also significant for understanding Paul and his letters that he lived in three cultural worlds. He was a native Jew—a Pharisee by training—and thus enmeshed in the Jewish way of life. Yet Paul grew up in Tarsus, a Greek-speaking university town, and was well acquainted with Greek language and culture. Finally, as a Roman citizen, Paul was familiar with the politics and power of the Roman Empire. In many ways, Paul was the ideal figure to take the message of the Jewish Messiah to Greeks and Romans in the eastern Mediterranean, preaching and teaching in language, terms, and images they understood.
Basic Theological Themes
Romans
Romans is the great letter about the “righteousness of God,” the saving and transforming power of God revealed in the gospel. What is more, in Romans, Paul declares that his goal is to bring the Gentiles to the obedience of faith, as faithful followers of Jesus the Messiah and Lord.
1–2 Corinthians
Corinth was Paul’s problem church, racked by divisions, immorality, and even hostility toward him. In the Corinthian letters, Paul urges the believers to lead faithful lives in a pagan world, and he holds up Christ’s sacrifice on the cross as the example and authenticator of genuine Christian service.
Galatians
Paul defends the gospel against Jewish Christian intruders in Galatia who asserted that the Galatians must first become Jews in order to become Christians. Paul in turn responds by defending justification by faith and life in the Spirit, proving that God accepts Gentiles on the basis of faith in the Messiah.
Ephesians
This letter is likely circular letter meant to be shared among the churches in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), Ephesus chief among them. Paul provides an extended meditation on God’s glory to enrich believers in their knowledge of God’s grace. The lavish grace that believers have received should propel them to live in obedience to the one who called them.
Philippians
This letter of friendship reinforces the bonds of fellowship between Paul and the Philippians. Here Paul commends the virtues of faithfulness, generosity, and humility, especially in the majestic Christ-hymn (Phil 2:6–11), which shows that Christ is the paragon of self-giving love.
Colossians
Written to a church Paul did not plant, Colossians reminds the church of the sufficiency and supremacy of Jesus Christ and urges them on in faithfulness to Him.
1–2 Thessalonians
In these letters, Paul writes to the Thessalonians to encourage them in the face of hardship, to encourage them to be enthusiastic about the Lord’s return (1 Thessalonians), and to clarify any misunderstandings or misrepresentations about the Lord’s return (2 Thessalonians).
1–2 Timothy and Titus
Commonly known as the Pastoral Letters, these three letters encourage Paul’s co-workers Timothy and Titus in their respective ministries in Ephesus and Crete. They were written at the end of Paul’s life during a Roman imprisonment. These letters are perhaps best described as faithful sayings for faithful friends, and they set out key Christian doctrines to be defended and describe the main qualifications for those in Christian leadership.
Philemon
This letter was written to a slave owner named Philemon, who was part of the church in Colossae. Philemon was converted under Paul’s ministry, and Philemon’s slave, Onesimus, either ran away or absconded to Paul, and was converted also. Paul writes to Philemon to receive Onesimus back as a brother in the Lord and tacitly asks Philemon to release Onesimus to Paul’s care. The letter provides wonderful remarks on fellowship, love, and brotherhood.
Relationship to the Larger Biblical Narrative and Themes
Paul’s letters emphasize many major biblical-theological themes; some of the most important are Adam and Christ, Abraham and Covenant, Israel and Law, Jesus the Messiah, and Church and Mission.
Adam and Christ
The story of Adam’s creation and fall lurks behind the scenes (or comes into the spotlight) in several of Paul’s letters, especially in Romans 5:12–21; 7:6–25; 1 Corinthians 15:22, 45; and Philippians 2:5–11. Paul tells of a world gone wrong in Adam and put right in Jesus. The coming of Jesus, the New Adam, undoes the condemnation, corruption, and death of the first Adam by bringing righteousness, renewal, and life to believers.
Abraham and Covenant
Paul belabors the point—especially in Galatians and Romans—that the promises made to Abraham were not short circuited by the introduction of the covenant at Sinai, the law of Moses, and Israel’s subsequent rebellion and exile. No, God still has one plan to bring the nations into the family of Abraham through his offspring, Jesus the Messiah. Abraham is not the exemplary proselyte who is circumcised and saved; rather, he is the model Christian who believes in the life-giving power of God, and he is made right by faith alone, not by works of the law.
Israel and the Law
If salvation is by faith and not by observing the Law, if salvation is for all nations and not just for Israel, then many of Paul’s hearers had some big questions. What was the point of the Law? How do you stop pagans from immoral idol-worship? Has God washed His hands of Israel? Paul’s answer to these questions, worked out across his letters, is that the Law was a temporary marker pointing to the salvation to come, not the terminal expression of that salvation. The Law remains good and holy, but it is no longer the constitution or primary charter for God’s people; these things have been replaced by the life and teaching of Jesus and new life in the Spirit. Ethnic Israel is not written off; God’s election of the nation is irrevocable, but “Israel” is a calling—a vocation inherited by all those who belong to Christ. Christ became a servant to Israel so that the promises made to the patriarchs, and ultimately all the nations, would become a reality.
Jesus the Messiah
Paul the Pharisee believed Jesus was a messianic pretender and a false prophet. But after his Damascus road experience, Paul came to believe that Jesus is the Messiah and Lord, who died and rose, and that he had been given a commission to proclaim this Jesus to the nations. For Paul, Jesus is the risen and exalted Son of God—an integral part of the very identity of the God of Israel. Paul knew that those crucified were, as Deuteronomy says, cursed (Deut 21:22–23). But if Christ was cursed, then God must have cursed Him to take the curse of our disobedience upon Himself. Jesus’ death is His atonement for sin.
Church and Mission
For Paul, the churches of Jesus Christ are linked by sharing one Lord, one gospel, one baptism, one faith, and fellowship in one mission. The Church in essence is just what Israel was always meant to become: the worshiping and Spirit-led community of the new covenant and the foretaste of the new creation. The Church is to be empowered by the Spirit; made up of people from all ethnicities; focused on Jesus’ death and resurrection; devoted to remembering Jesus’ teachings and imitating His life; united around baptism and the Lord’s Supper; and committed to God’s mission by witnessing to—and being invested in—the world, without being a reflection of the world.
Michael F. Bird
Further Reading
The Pentateuch
The term “Pentateuch” refers to the first five books of the Bible—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, these books are referred to as the Torah. They are considered sacred and authoritative.
Authorship
Jewish and Christian traditions ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses. However, modern scholarship is divided on the authorship and composition history of the Pentateuch. Some have asserted that the Pentateuch was compiled over a period of centuries as multiple authors or communities produced distinct versions of Israel’s early history and laws. Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) articulated the most influential version of this theory, identifying four sources in the Pentateuch that he called J, E, D, and P. This model for the origin of the Pentateuch is called the Documentary Hypothesis.
Proponents of the Documentary Hypothesis identify and categorize supposed unique sources within the Pentateuch based on changes in style, vocabulary, and content. Over time, according to this view, various editors (called redactors) combined the source documents and added other material to create the Pentateuch as we know it.
However, there is no real consensus about the Documentary Hypothesis in modern scholarship; even among those who hold to the viewpoint, there is great variation in how the theoretical sources are understood, divided, and how many sources there are.
Current opinions on the composition of the Pentateuch vary widely, from affirming traditional Mosaic authorship to complex theories involving multiple sources being woven together over centuries of textual transmission. Nonetheless, J, E, D, and P are still often used as convenient labels for identifying different types of content in the Pentateuch, apart from questions of sources or authorship.
Content and Themes of Each Book
The fundamental purpose of the Pentateuch is to define the origin, mission, and institutions of Israel as God’s elect nation, chosen for His purposes in the world. Utilizing multiple settings, narratives, and laws the Pentateuch articulates this viewpoint.
Genesis
In Genesis 12:1–3, Abraham is called by Yahweh to leave his homeland because God has chosen him and will give the land of Canaan to his offspring. This text defines Israel’s ultimate mission: All the nations of earth will find blessing through Abraham’s offspring.
Genesis 1–11 is a prologue to Abraham’s election; it describes a world estranged from God and in need of reconciliation, illustrated by the expulsion from Eden, Cain’s murder of Abel, the flood, and the Tower of Babel. Genesis 12–50 describes God’s special protection and provision for the patriarchs, caring for Abraham even when he was acting dishonorably (Gen 12:10–20), and using Joseph’s brothers’ jealousy to secure a place for Israel in Egypt (Gen 50:20). Genesis also continually defines and refines the identity of Israel: The elect people are the offspring of Abraham and not Lot (father of Moab and Ammon), of Isaac and not Ishmael (father of the Ishmaelites), of Jacob and not Esau (father of the Edomites).
Exodus
The history of Israel as a nation (not just a family) begins with Exodus, and Exodus is also in many ways the wellspring of Old Testament theology. Israel is transformed from a mass of migrants and slaves to a unified nation. Their dependence on Yahweh is defined when their liberation is brought about entirely by Yahweh’s initiative through the plagues on Egypt (Exod 7–14). Moses emerges as the paradigm for the prophets as he speaks for Yahweh (Exod 9:1–4), does mighty works (Exod 14:21–29), and intercedes when the people sin (Exod 32:11–14). The Sinai (or Mosaic) covenant establishes the bond between Yahweh and Israel (Exod 19:5–6), and the tent of meeting, where Yahweh dwells among His people, demonstrates Israel’s privileged status (Exod 25–27). Exodus describes two of Israel’s ritual days: Passover (Exod 12:1–32) and the Sabbath (Exod 16:22–30). The Ten Commandments and the statutes of Exodus 21–23 define Israel’s duties to Yahweh as well as their civil institutions. Exodus initiates the central sanctuary (Exod 25–27) and the Aaronic priesthood—the descendants of Aaron, Moses’ brother (Exod 28–31).
In the golden calf narrative (Exod 32:1–6), Exodus describes the pattern of idolatry that would plague Israel throughout its history and lead to its eventual destruction. Exodus also establishes God’s character: He keeps His covenant (Exod 2:24), He is the great victor over evil (as shown at the crossing of the sea in Exodus 14), He is holy (Exod 19:10–13), and above all, He is “gracious and compassionate” (Exod 34:6). The theology of Deuteronomy and the prophets is often an expansion of themes in Exodus. Throughout the Old Testament, the exodus, the plagues, the Sinai covenant, the golden calf, and other events from the book of Exodus are treated as paradigms.
Leviticus
Leviticus is Israel’s guide to holy living—for all the people, not just the priests. Even when Leviticus focuses on rules for the priests (Lev 8–10), the message is that the Aaronic priesthood has been consecrated for the sake of all Israelites. In describing what sacrifices to offer (Lev 1–7), Leviticus tells the people how to worship Yahweh. All of life becomes sacred through the introduction of ritual into matters of food, dress, and care for the body (with respect to diet in Lev 11, childbirth in Lev 12, and contagion in Lev 13–14). Holiness, however, is not just a matter of ritual cleanness; Leviticus 18–20 gives extensive teaching on sexual purity, the proper treatment of one’s neighbors, and idolatrous practices to avoid.
Numbers
Numbers continues the narrative and legal themes begun in Exodus. More information about the nature of the Israelite camp, its relationship to the tent of meeting, and the first Passover is given in Numbers 1:1–9:14. Further commands regarding sacrifices, the priests, and ritual cleanness appear in Numbers 15–19. The pattern of Israelite disobedience also continues; another incident involving complaints about food and the appearance of quail occurs in Numbers 11:1–35 (compare Exod 16:13), and another incident in Meribah involving thirst takes place in Numbers 20:1–13 (compare Exod 17:1–7). The people again rebel against the directives regarding the invasion of Canaan in Numbers 14:1–45, with catastrophic results—and as with the golden calf, Moses again intercedes for them (Num 15:13–19; see Exod 32:11–14; 34:6–7). On the other hand, the Balaam episode (Num 22–24) illustrates the principle from Genesis 12:3 that Yahweh comes to the defense of His people, cursing those who curse Israel.
Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy is both the summation of the Pentateuch and essentially the first book of prophecy. The book is basically Moses’ prophetic sermon, and it foretells Israel’s disobedience, destruction, and eventual restoration (Deut 29:22–30:5). Deuteronomy 1–4 summarizes the story of Israel in the wilderness, and the bulk of Deuteronomy 5–26 restates, expands upon, or modifies the laws given in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Deuteronomy 5:1–21, for example, restates the Ten Commandments from Exodus 20:1–17. Deuteronomy is also the restatement of the Sinai covenant between Yahweh and Israel. The book is similar to suzerain-vassal treaties from the 14th century bc. In these treaties, a superior “suzerain” state makes a covenant with a subordinate “vassal” state; this type of relationship is similar to Yahweh’s covenant with Israel. Thus Deuteronomy is in some respect similar to these ancient treaties.
The Pentateuch and the Rest of Scripture
Taken as a whole, the Pentateuch is a coherent and unified work. Together these books assert that people are estranged from Yahweh due to sin, but Yahweh chose Israel and gave them a unique identity and mission as His people in order to bring blessing to all the nations of the earth. In the histories and prophecies of the Old Testament, Israel, like the rest of the humanity, demonstrates its sinfulness; but the promise of salvation is sustained as prophets pointed Yahweh’s people toward a new and marvelous work that He would do in the future. In the Messiah, Jesus, we see how Yahweh’s covenant love finally overcomes human sin and discover that truly “salvation is from the Jews” (John 4:22).
Duane Garrett
Further Reading
Genesis, Book of CLBD
Exodus, Book of CLBD
Leviticus, Book of CLBD
Numbers, Book of CLBD
Deuteronomy, Book of CLBD
The Synoptic Gospels and Acts
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John have much in common, but because the first three share a particularly strong resemblance, they are called the “Synoptic Gospels” (literally, Gospels with a common vision). The differences between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John are as interesting as they are significant. For example, where the Synoptics have numerous parables focusing on the kingdom of God, the Fourth Gospel rarely includes parables, and the term “kingdom” is used sparingly (John 3:3, 5; 18:36). Likewise, in the Synoptic Gospels Jesus is declared to be Messiah at Caesarea Philippi in the middle of the narrative (Matt 16:13–16; Mark 8:27–30; Luke 9:18–20); in John’s account, Jesus’ messiahship is announced at the beginning of the text (John 1:35, 49).
The considerable overlap (in terms of plot, wording, and substance) between the Synoptic Gospels suggests that the three texts are related—one or more of the evangelists used or was aware of the work of the others. According to the traditional view of the early church fathers, Matthew was the first Gospel written. Mark, who used Matthew as a reference, was written second, and Luke, who used both Matthew and Mark, was written last. Although this view prevailed for centuries, other solutions have been put forward to explain the relation between the Synoptic Gospels.
The most common theory today claims that Mark was the earliest Gospel, composed independently of another early—but lost—source. Both Mark and this hypothesized “lost source” supposedly provided the basis for Matthew and Luke, who worked independently of each other. This view eventually came to be called the “Two-Source Hypothesis.” The hypothetical lost source is called “Q” for “Quelle,” the German word for “source.” A variation of this view argues that Mark was, in fact, the first Gospel, but that there was no “Q”—Matthew used Mark as a source, and Luke used both Matthew and Mark.
The Gospel of Mark
If the Gospel of Mark was indeed written first, its likely author was not the most illustrious among the evangelists. According to church tradition, John Mark (Acts 12:12, 25; 15:37; 2 Tim 4:11) authored the Gospel, and there is little reason to think otherwise. Church tradition also reports that he worked under the auspices of the Apostle Peter. Exactly when the author of Mark’s Gospel completed his work is less certain. Depending on a variety of considerations, scholars date this Gospel anywhere between the 40s and the 70s ad. A composition in the mid-60s or just after ad 70 are the most widely accepted options.
Mark’s Gospel was most likely written in Rome, though Alexandria and Palestine are also possibilities. A Roman setting is suggested by the various Latinisms in the text and by the author’s numerous attempts to translate events into Roman terms (Mark 12:42; 15:16). The church fathers Irenaeus (Against Heresies 3.1.1) and Clement of Alexandria (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 6.15.6–7) affirm the likelihood of Rome as the place of composition.
The author of the Gospel of Mark seems to have been particularly interested in issues of theodicy (the vindication of God and His ways)—more specifically, why the followers of a supposedly risen and triumphant Messiah should experience suffering and rejection. Mark seems to suggest that the answer lies in the fact that Jesus has redefined the terms of messiahship altogether. In the first half of the Gospel, prior to the revelation of Caesarea Philippi (Mark 8:27–30), the evangelist seeks to establish Jesus as the promised Messiah. In the second half of the narrative, he conveys the surprising things that messianic identity entails. The reason why so many do not accept the Messiah is because only some are “good soil” (Mark 4:1–20), receptive to the claims of Jesus. Mark’s Gospel, with its twin focus on Christ’s compelling character and suffering, serves as an unparalleled charter document for Christian discipleship.
The Gospel of Matthew
The Gospel of Matthew is often assigned a date much later than that of Mark. This is primarily a consequence not only of the Two-Source Hypothesis, but also of the sense that the author of Matthew’s Gospel is addressing concerns relevant to the late first century ad (e.g., Christians’ conflicts with the synagogue and issues of church order). Moreover, the twice-used phrase “to this day” (Matt 27:8; 28:15) seems to imply some historical distance between Matthew’s recording of the events and the events themselves. These factors may suggest an authorship date in the late first-century ad, although other factors suggest an earlier date; the dating of Matthew remains open to discussion.
Antioch in Syria is the most probable place of origin for Matthew’s Gospel. Other suggested locations include Caesarea Maritima, Alexandria, and the territory east of the Jordan. The Gospel has an obvious concern for the Gentiles, and Syrian Antioch was a cosmopolitan mix of Jewish and Gentile cultures during the first century ad. The earliest attestations of Matthew’s Gospel stemming from the church father Ignatius of Antioch (e.g., To the Smyrnaeans 1.1, To the Ephesians 19.1–3) also suggest a Syrian origin for the Gospel.
The first Gospel seems to have been written with a Jewish audience foremost in mind. Matthew’s modeling of Jesus on the figure of Moses, the polemic against institutional Judaism, and the various “fulfillment citations” (referencing an Old Testament passage as being fulfilled in the New Testament, especially how Jesus personally fulfills Old Testament Scriptures; e.g., Matt 1:22–23; 2:15, 17–18, 23; 4:14–16) all seem to presuppose an attempt to legitimize a fledgling Christian movement within an established Jewish culture. Matthew shows Jesus as the true teacher of Torah, indeed as the embodiment of Torah itself, and as the culmination of the history of God’s redeeming purposes through Israel.
The Gospel of Luke and Book of Acts
The Gospel of Luke, the latest of the Synoptic Gospels, has traditionally been credited to Luke, a Gentile physician and companion of the Apostle Paul (Col 4:11, 14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 24). The book of Acts (or Acts of the Apostles) is also traditionally attributed to Luke since the prologue presents it as a sequel to the Gospel (Acts 1:1–2). There are also four “we passages” in Acts, which appear as if the author was present for the events being narrated (Acts 16:10–17; 20:5–15; 21:1–18; 27:1–28:16). This would make sense if Luke was indeed the author.
Assuming that Luke and Acts were written together as one piece (the two works show striking structural parallels that make it hard to believe otherwise), the dating of Luke—Acts is closely connected with prior judgments relating not only to the authorship of Mark (on whom Luke presumably depends) but also to the events narrated in Acts. The earliest that Luke-Acts could have been completed would have been just after Paul’s Roman imprisonment (Acts 28:11–31) in the early 60s. Another view dates the writing of Luke—Acts to the 80s or 90s. This possibility rests mainly on the belief that its author was aware of the destruction of Jerusalem (ad 70). Moreover, Luke’s Gospel appears to be an attempt to address early Christian anxieties over the so-called delay of the Parousia, or second coming of Christ (see Matt 24:27). On the assumption that such anxieties presented themselves (a debated issue), they must have done so measurably later than the writing of Mark or even Matthew.
Luke—Acts have their own distinctive style and offer their own unique contribution to the New Testament. The texts contain very polished Greek; their rich allusiveness (to both pagan and Jewish sources) and attention to historical detail (such as in the travelogue of Paul’s journey to Rome in Acts 27–28) betray a well-educated author writing for a well-educated audience. Judging by the prologues (Luke 1:1–4; Acts 1:1–2), which are modeled on the prologues of other serious Greek historical works, it can be concluded that the author wished to be understood as an equally serious historian. Addressing both the Gospel and Acts to one Theophilus (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1), Luke announces his intention of rooting the story of Jesus and the early church firmly within history. Thus, Luke—Acts as a whole not only carries out an apologetic function—confirming the factual validity of the church’s proclamation—but also offers a founding account of the identity of an expanding and increasingly diversified movement. The outworking of that story is consistently tied back to the sovereign purposes of God, the reign of the risen Christ, the activity of the Holy Spirit, and the character and mission of the church. In addition to these themes, the author of Luke—Acts maintains a distinctive interest in prayer, hospitality, the poor, and salvation (Luke 2:11; 4:21; 19:10; 23:43; Acts 1:14; 2:42–47; 4:12, 32–35; 28:28).
Three Gospels, One Portrait
Together, the Synoptic Gospels offer a compelling and mutually enriching portrait of Jesus. Although readers have not always agreed on the meaning of the Gospels, all can agree that were it not for Matthew, Mark, and Luke, we would know very little about the historical Jesus or His kingdom message. It is thus hardly by chance that the earliest compilers of the New Testament canon chose to begin not with the earliest-written books, but with those books that tell the lead story: the Synoptic Gospels.
Nicholas Perrin
Further Reading
Q CLBD
Textual Criticism of the New Testament CLBD
Jesus, Historical, Quest for The CLBD
Jesus, Canonical CLBD
Jesus and Qumran CLBD
Wisdom Literature
Few parts of the Bible are as theologically rich and yet largely neglected as the Wisdom Literature. While wisdom themes and language appear throughout the Old Testament, they occur in concentrated form in the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. Today, these books constitute the genre of Wisdom Literature in Protestant Bibles.
Ancient Near Eastern Context
Wisdom literature is not unique to Israel. Comparable literature is found throughout the ancient Near East, particularly in Egypt. However, Old Testament Wisdom Literature is unique in its insistence that wisdom has one source: Yahweh (Prov 3:19).
Wisdom is deeply experiential and concerned with how to live a happy and successful life amid everyday challenges. Thus, wisdom literature appropriately appears throughout the ancient Near East, as various cultures developed their own traditions from lived experiences. In the Bible, the experiential wisdom handed down through generations most obviously appears in the short proverbs or aphorisms found in Proverbs 10–29. Of course, we need to allow Old Testament wisdom to shape how we understand happy and successful. It is clear from Job that in order to gain wisdom, we may have to experience profound suffering. Nevertheless, the Old Testament clearly establishes that wisdom represents the path to blessing.
The Relationship Between Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job
Exploring the unique contribution of Wisdom Literature to the Bible requires an understanding of the relationship between Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. The book of Proverbs is sometimes labeled “early” or “traditional wisdom.” This is correct in that it serves as the foundation for wisdom theology in the Old Testament and sets out the overarching principles of wisdom (see Prov 1–9). Four categories have been identified as central to Proverbs and thus to Israel’s view of wisdom:
1. Wisdom is grounded in the “fear of Yahweh.”
2. Wisdom is concerned with discerning the order built into the creation by Yahweh.
3. Wisdom focuses on discerning God’s ways in particular circumstances.
4. Wisdom is grounded in tradition.1
Given that Proverbs sets out the Israelite view of wisdom, Job and Ecclesiastes make the most sense when read against its background. These two books primarily focus on the idea that things can (and do) go wrong in life. While Proverbs also acknowledges this fact, it is not the primary focus of the book; rather, Proverbs lays the foundation for Old Testament wisdom by emphasizing proper fear of Yahweh and the relationship between a person’s character and everyday consequences.
Proverbs
Proverbs is not a random collection of axioms; it has been carefully edited into a literary whole, moving from the preface to its climax in the vision evoked by the valiant woman. Throughout the work, it covers key themes.
Fear of God
A central and recurring theme throughout the book of Proverbs is that the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of knowledge or wisdom (Prov 1:7, 29; 2:5; 8:13; 10:27; 14:27; 15:16, 33; 16:6; 19:23; 23:17; 31:30). “Fear” is best understood as holy reverence of Yahweh—the redeemer and covenant God who rescued the Israelites from slavery and brought them to Himself (Exod 19:4). Such an attitude toward God represents the beginning of wisdom in two ways: It serves as the foundation on which all true wisdom and knowledge is built, and it is the starting point for the journey of life and exploration of God’s world. God created the world by wisdom, and He offers this same wisdom to His people (Prov 3:19; 8:22); gaining wisdom is of surpassing value (Prov 2).
Character—Consequence
The preface to Proverbs (Prov 1:2–6) amasses a variety of terms that alerts the reader to the advantages of wisdom. Proverbs 1–9 alternates between speeches of a father to his adolescent son and speeches by Lady Wisdom, all of which emphasize the great value of pursuing and finding wisdom. Verses like Proverbs 3:9–10 indicate that wisdom results in blessing, which can include material prosperity.
Proverbs 1–9 sets out the basic principles of wisdom, central to which is the “character—consequence” theme: Those who seek wisdom and live by it can expect to flourish. God designed the world such that flourishing is a consequence of developed character. These chapters also acknowledge that wisdom involves Yahweh’s discipline and reproof (see Prov 3:11–12). In later sections of the book of Proverbs, there is a greater focus on exceptions to the character—consequence theme. These exceptions are foregrounded, particularly in the “better than” proverbs (e.g., Prov 16:23; 22:1). The writer of Proverbs is well aware that in a fallen world, the wise may end up impoverished.2
The Valiant Woman
Proverbs culminates in Proverbs 31 with a rich evocation of lived wisdom by depicting the valiant woman. Proverbs 31:10–31 is an acrostic poem, with each verse beginning with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It is written in the form of a hymn—a literary style normally reserved for God or great warriors. Although there are no references to “religious” activities in her description, she is lauded as one who fears Yahweh (Prov 31:30). Her general manner of living manifests her fear of Yahweh. This shows that Old Testament wisdom did not uphold a sacred/secular dualism that pervades contemporary Christianity. Because God is the Creator, we are called to be wise in all areas of life. Thus, the valiant woman is portrayed as a wife (Prov 31:10–12), homemaker (Prov 31:13–15, 21), businesswoman (she imports food from afar and trades in fabric of the highest quality; Prov 31:14, 24), wine producer (Prov 31:16), and craftsperson (Prov 31:19, 22, 24). In addition, she performs works of charity (Prov 31:20) and teaches wisdom (Prov 31:26).
Ecclesiastes
Both Job and Ecclesiastes deal with suffering. In Ecclesiastes, Qohelet—the Hebrew word for the name of the speaker throughout Ecclesiastes—is suffering more of an intellectual crisis, whereas Job suffers physical and emotional anguish. The narrator of Ecclesiastes introduces Qohelet, a figure gifted with wisdom and wealth. Ecclesiastes 1:2 summarizes Qohelet’s teaching: “Vanity of vanities! All is vanity!”—an expression of despair. A variety of translations for the Hebrew term used here, hevel, have been proposed. Hevel may be literally rendered as “vapor” or “breath.” In Ecclesiastes, hevel seems to hold the metaphorical force of “enigmatic”; Qohelet has found his way into what may be called a “cloud of unknowing,” and he cannot determine whether life has any meaning. His quest for meaning in life, couched in the rhetorical question of Ecclesiastes 1:3—“What does a person gain in all his toil?”—represents a deep existential crisis and profound intellectual suffering.
Scholars are divided into two camps when it comes to the overarching message of Ecclesiastes. It could be a despairing book to which an editor added an epilogue (Eccl 12:9–14) to make the book more acceptable, or the epilogue could indicate that the overall message is positive. Either way, the struggle contained in the book and evoked by Qohelet’s regular conclusions of hevel must not be downplayed.
Throughout the book of Ecclesiastes, Qohelet’s hevel conclusions appear next to so-called “carpe diem sayings” (e.g., Eccl 2:24–26). These joyful passages do not reflect a despairing hedonism but a typical Old Testament celebration of the goodness of creation. They refer to eating, drinking, and enjoying the pleasures of life. It is best to see these hevel and carpe diem phrases as contradictory juxtapositions. No matter what area of life he explores, Qohelet’s method of exploration—which he calls “wisdom” (Eccl 1:13; 2:9)—constantly leads him to his hevel conclusion. But each time he reaches this dark point, we find a carpe diem passage juxtaposed.
This juxtaposition of contradictory views forces the reader to look closely at Qohelet’s method of exploration (or epistemology). His wisdom is very different from what Proverbs calls wisdom; whereas wisdom begins with fear of Yahweh in Proverbs, Qohelet seems to rely on reason, observation, and experience—fear of God is only noted in the epilogue (Eccl 12:9–14). If Ecclesiastes was written in the fourth century bc, it is possible that the author was influenced by Greek thought. In the postexilic period, it was difficult for the Jewish people to see what had happened to God’s promises and purposes; in the light of Greek epistemology, Qohelet cannot find meaning anywhere in life. However, the carpe diem passages stem from his Israelite tradition. Even as he keeps coming to his hevel conclusions, he cannot deny the truth that life is good and full of things to enjoy. The heart of Ecclesiastes is the tension between these two views.
The final chapters of Ecclesiastes demonstrate how Qohelet’s dilemma is resolved (Eccl 11:7–12:8). The idea of remembering and rejoicing dominate this section and provide the key to the resolution of his crisis. Ecclesiastes 12:1–7 is Qohelet’s equivalent of Proverb’s claim that the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of wisdom. His former epistemology is reversed; it now starts with God as Creator rather than his own experiences, reason, and observations. This does not detract from the challenges of life, as the epilogue also makes clear, but it provides a foundation for living amid the mysteries of life.
Job
In the book of Job, resolution to suffering also emerges through an encounter with God as Creator (Job 38:1–42:6). Job’s suffering is clearly described; he is stripped of everything important to him and crippled with bad health (Job 1:6–2:10). Initially, he makes a remarkable confession of faith (Job 1:21). He then takes part in conversations with his friends and God before returning to his formerly stated position of faith, now more fully embraced and understood (Job 42:5). Job’s suffering is not resolved intellectually but through a remarkable encounter with God.
While the extent of suffering in Job and Ecclesiastes seems to contradict the character—consequence theme of Proverbs, these books are not really exceptions. Wisdom is not just about technique—it is about the formation of the believer at the deepest levels. This is what we witness in both Job and Ecclesiastes: Suffering is a way God makes His people truly wise.
Wisdom Literature and the Rest of Scripture
Wisdom Literature in the Old Testament insists that creation as a whole comes from God, and that wisdom means seeking God’s ways in all areas of life. Wisdom, with its robust doctrine of creation, is theologically vital for a modern Christian faith that seeks to whole-heartedly serve God. Wisdom Literature also provides an important background for the New Testament, in which Jesus is portrayed as Wisdom incarnate (John 1:1–2). Jesus fulfills all aspects of the Old Testament—wisdom included.
Craig G. Bartholomew
Further Reading
Proverbs, Book of CLBD
Job, Book of CLBD
Book Introductions
Introduction to Genesis
Genesis is about beginnings—of the world, of humanity, and of Israel. The book focuses on the early stages of God’s relationship with humankind, as He sets a plan in motion to redeem the world. God chooses Abraham—known as Abram at the time—and his descendants to participate in this plan. The thrilling stories of Abraham and his family make up the majority of Genesis.
Background
The name “Genesis” comes from the Greek word meaning “origins.” But there is great debate about the book’s origins and the rest of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible). While the text of Genesis does not identify its author, Jewish and Christian traditions ascribe the book to Moses (e.g., Luke 24:44). However, this does not necessarily mean Moses himself wrote the Pentateuch—it may simply be in the tradition of Moses, the first known writing prophet (Exod 20). The Pentateuch may use multiple sources, and multiple people may have added to it and edited it over time—with it reaching its final form in the fifth century bc. Even if Moses had a major hand in shaping this material, certain passages (such as the record of his death in Deut 34:1–12) indicate that it underwent at least some editorial revision.
Structure
Genesis can be divided into two sections. First, Genesis 1–11 is known as the primeval history; this section describes creation and its corruption by sin, with passages about humanity’s fall (Gen 3), Noah’s ark (chs. 6–9), and the tower of Babel (ch. 11). The second section, the patriarchal narratives (chs. 12–50), begin with God’s promise to Abram—to make him a great nation, bless him, and make him a blessing to the world (12:2). As the patriarchal narratives unfold, we discover how Abram and his descendants respond to this promise.
Genesis 1–11 serves as a literary prequel to the rest of the book and to the Pentateuch. Israel’s origin is set within the context of the origins of the universe, the earth, humanity, and separate people groups and languages. The section concludes with the introduction of Abram (11:27–32), the major character of the patriarchal narratives and the forefather of the Israelites. As a backdrop to the Bible’s message, Genesis 1–11 introduces us to God (known as Yahweh)—showing His power in creation and revealing His expectations for humanity.
In Genesis 12–25, God calls Abram to leave his home and move to a new land. God intends to show Abraham a land that he and his descendants will inhabit, the future land of Israel. God also promises that a great nation will descend from Abram and his barren wife, Sarai. As a sign of God and Abram’s special relationship—called a “covenant”—God changes the couple’s names to Abraham and Sarah (ch. 17). Holding onto a promise but still impatient, the couple decides for Abraham to have a son by Hagar, Sarah’s servant; the son is named Ishmael. In spite of this, Sarah eventually gives birth to the son promised by God, Isaac.
Isaac fathers twins, Esau and Jacob (25:19–36:43). Jacob—whose name God changes to “Israel”—has 12 sons, including Joseph. Through a series of challenging events, Joseph eventually claims a powerful role in Egypt’s royal court, and his family joins him in Egypt where, unfortunately, they will one day be enslaved (chs. 37–50; see Exodus).
At every stage of the story, characters take matters into their own hands and often suffer painful consequences, yet God remains faithful to His promises and His people, now known as Israel.
Outline
• Creation, sin, and the early history of the nations (1:1–11:32)
• The life of Abraham (12:1–25:18)
• The lives of Isaac and Jacob (25:19–36:43)
• The lives of Joseph and his brothers (37:1–50:26)
Themes
Adam and Eve’s choices compromised our ability to live in God’s image; Genesis tells the story of the beginning of God’s effort to renew His image in us. In Genesis, the people of Israel are selected to initiate God’s grand plan of salvation by being a blessing to the world—a plan that is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus.
The major themes of promise and blessing run throughout the patriarchal narratives, as God’s promises are repeated to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Their failures send a clear message that God’s blessing is not because of any merit or righteousness on their own part; instead, God’s blessing reflects His desire to restore humanity to right relationship with Him. Genesis is the story of God calling people to turn from the sinful world and obey Him.
Further Reading
Introduction to Exodus
Exodus begins where Genesis leaves off: The descendants of Jacob are living in Egypt and have multiplied into a large community. But Egypt’s new king, the pharaoh, regards the Israelites as a threat and forces them into slavery. Exodus tells the story of how God hears the cry of His people, delivers them from Egyptian bondage, and leads them to freedom.
Background
The title, Exodus, comes from a Greek word that means “going out,” which is fitting for the book’s subject: the exit of the Hebrew people from Egypt. The text does not name its author, but Jewish and Christian traditions ascribe the book to Moses. However, there is debate about how the first five books of the Bible, known as the Pentateuch, were compiled (see the “Introduction to Genesis”).
Assigning the events of Exodus to a specific historical period is difficult because there is little evidence from outside the Bible. The exodus can be dated to sometime during the 15th–13th centuries bc. The story is set mostly in Egypt and the Sinai Peninsula—particularly Mount Sinai. The events surrounding God’s call of Moses (Exod 2–4) take place in Midian, just east of Sinai.
Structure
The book of Exodus divides naturally into two halves (chs. 1–18 and chs. 19–40). The first half tells how God rescues the Israelites from Egypt and leads them to Mount Sinai. God saves the infant Moses and later commissions him to lead the Israelites out of Egypt (chs. 1–4). As God’s representative, Moses repeatedly confronts Pharaoh, who refuses to let the Israelites leave despite the devastating plagues sent by God (chs. 5–10). After the 10th plague kills all of the firstborn throughout Egypt, Pharaoh relents; the Israelites leave Egypt and walk across the sea as God holds back the waters (chs. 11–15). In the wilderness, they soon run out of supplies, but God miraculously provides food and water (chs. 16–18).
The second half of Exodus deals with the covenant God makes with the Israelites at Mount Sinai. This section begins with the Israelites camping at the mountain and receiving the Ten Commandments, which are followed by other regulations (chs. 19–24). God also gives Moses detailed plans for the Israelites’ worship, including instructions for the ark of the covenant, the tabernacle (Israel’s portable tent-shrine), and the priesthood (chs. 25–31). While Moses is up on the mountain, the Israelites decide to worship a golden idol shaped like a calf; in the fallout, God teaches the people how important it is to worship Him alone (chs. 32–34). The remaining chapters record the Israelites constructing the tabernacle and preparing for worship (chs. 35–40).
Outline
• Deliverance from Egypt (1:1–15:21)
• Journey to Sinai (15:22–18:27)
• The law is given at Sinai (19:1–31:18)
• The Israelites rebel at Sinai (32:1–34:35)
• The tabernacle is completed (35:1–40:38)
Themes
The core message of Exodus is that God alone can set people free from bondage. The Israelites cannot rescue themselves. Throughout the book, God reveals Himself with the repeated statement “I am Yahweh” (e.g., 6:6–8; 20:2; 34:10; this name often appears as “the Lord” in English translations). In doing so, Yahweh affirms that Israel is indeed His people.
God gives His people guidance about how to live and how to worship. Idolatry is not an option; Yahweh is not like other gods and cannot be worshiped in the same way. By giving the Israelites His law, God teaches them how to live justly. But as Moses indicates, the people need more than God’s law; they need His presence to dwell among them (33:15–17; 40:36–38).
Exodus proclaims God’s deliverance of Israel. God frees His people and sustains them. He is their great rescuer. This act of deliverance is remembered throughout the Bible as the quintessential example of Yahweh’s power to save (Neh 9:9–15; Psa 78; Isa 48:20–21). Just as Yahweh saved them before, He would save them again (Isa 51:9–11; Hos 11:1–11). And, in Christ—the one greater than Moses—we too have a great rescuer (Heb 3:1–6). Jesus came to fulfill the law of Moses and free us from the bondage of sin (Matt 5:17–20; Gal 5:1). Thanks to Christ’s actions on the cross, we also have God’s very presence among us, the Holy Spirit (John 14:16–17; 16:17).
The message of Exodus is that God has set the captives free and continues to do so. God hears the cries of all who are oppressed, from sin or any worldly or spiritual powers, and He is faithful to answer (Rom 8:31–39; Heb 2).
Further Reading
Cosmic Garden and Mountain Imagery in the Old Testament
Holiness and Sacred Space in Israelite Religion
Exodus, Book of CLBD
Introduction to Leviticus
Leviticus outlines God’s covenant expectations. Yahweh and the Hebrew people formally entered into a covenant, a contractual agreement, at Sinai (Exod 24:1–8). As God’s chosen people, Israel was expected to live in a way that honored Him. While the book of Leviticus elaborates on many laws about rituals and sacrifices, the true focus of the book is holiness—ensuring that the people maintain a community worthy of God’s special presence. Holiness means being set apart for a purpose. Maintaining holiness involves having the attitude of respect that God’s holiness deserves. In Leviticus, God repeatedly states that His people must be holy because He is holy (e.g., Lev 11:44). Obedience in ritual and ethical matters is essential for the preservation of Israel’s holiness. In this way, Leviticus links worship with ethical living.
Background
The title, Leviticus, comes from a Greek word that means “having to do with the Levites.” The Levites were descendants of Jacob’s son Levi and a tribe of Israel (Gen 34; 49:5–7). Moses—the man who led the Hebrew people out of Egypt—was a Levite, as was Moses’ brother Aaron. The Levites were responsible for maintaining the tabernacle—the sacred tent where God’s presence would dwell among the people.
Leviticus is set during the Israelites’ stay at Mount Sinai after the exodus from Egypt (see Exod 19). Most of the book records God explaining His laws to Moses. Many of these laws focus on purity and aim to establish standards for holiness among God’s people. Leviticus is the source for what Jesus identifies as the second most important commandment: loving your neighbor as yourself (Lev 19:18; Matt 22:39).
Structure
Leviticus can be divided into six sections. The first section (Lev 1–7) gives instructions for various sacrifices. The second section (chs. 8–10) narrates the establishment of the priesthood as Aaron and his sons are ordained, and God’s glory fills the tabernacle, Israel’s portable tent-shrine (compare Exod 28–29). In Leviticus 10, two of Aaron’s sons are punished for offering worship to God inappropriately. Even the priests need to recognize the importance of obedience in Yahweh’s presence. The third section (chs. 11–15) contains regulations about ritual purity and impurity. This section includes the dietary laws about what animals are suitable for food and what animals must not be eaten (ch. 11). The rules about how to handle skin diseases are also found in this part of Leviticus (chs. 13–14). Jesus acknowledges these laws when He heals a leper, telling the man to visit the priests and follow the proper rituals for purification (Matt 8:1–4).
The fourth section (Lev 16) gives instructions for the annual Day of Atonement, when special sacrifices were offered to cleanse the Israelites of their sins. On this day alone, the high priest could enter the holy of holies (most holy place), the inner chamber of the tabernacle. The fifth section (chs. 17–26) is a “holiness code.” By following this system of ethics—which reflected God’s own holiness—the Israelites confirmed their covenant with God and showed themselves to be His holy people. The sixth section (ch. 27) gives instructions about vows and is patterned more like the earlier chapters of the book (chs. 1–16). It appears to have been placed there to avoid ending the book with the list of curses in Leviticus 26.
Outline
• Laws concerning sacrifices (1:1–7:38)
• The consecration of priests (8:1–10:20)
• Laws concerning purity (11:1–15:33)
• The Day of Atonement (16:1–34)
• Laws concerning holiness (17:1–26:46)
• Laws about vows (27:1–34)
Themes
In Leviticus, holiness is not simply goodness; it refers to being dedicated to God and separated from ordinary things. As a result, much of Leviticus is about setting boundaries—such as the categories of “pure” and “impure.” God is holy and separate, yet He invites Israel into relationship. The inner chamber of the tabernacle provides an example of this: Because this sanctuary was God’s holy dwelling place, it was dangerous to enter (16:2). However, with an invitation from God, the high priest (representing all of Israel) could enter into God’s holy presence and make atonement—signifying that the people are now right before God.
Leviticus contains regulations for Israel for worship and ethics. But it also sets the stage for some of the most important theological developments of the Bible: sacrifice, priesthood, and maintaining a right relationship with God Himself. Building on the words of the prophets, the New Testament articulates Jesus’ death on the cross as an atonement for all of humanity’s wrongdoings. This act makes it possible for all believers in Jesus to act as priests ministering to one another—because Jesus Himself intercedes today for us as our great high priest in heaven (1 Pet 2:5; Heb 4:14–16).
Further Reading
Leviticus 26 and the New Testament
Leviticus, Book of CLBD
Introduction to Numbers
The book of Numbers is about Israel’s 40-year journey through the wilderness toward Canaan, the promised land—a place God had long ago promised to their forefather Abraham (Gen 12:1–3). Numbers begins in the Sinai Desert, shortly after Yahweh gave His law to Moses, the man who led the Israelites out of slavery (see Exodus). Numbers ends with the Israelites on the Plains of Moab, across the Jordan River from the promised land. The book contains narratives, laws, poetry, and census lists. The various genres create a holistic picture of the Israelites’ journey and their developing relationship with God.
Background
The title, Numbers, refers to two censuses taken to count the members of Israel’s tribes—one at Mount Sinai (Num 1–4) and one in Moab (ch. 26). The Bible often includes records like these to provide a snapshot of the Hebrew people at significant turning points in their history. This time of wandering likely dates to the 15th or 13th centuries bc.
According to Jewish and Christian traditions, Moses wrote Numbers along with the rest of the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible). However, the books of the Pentateuch do not explicitly name Moses as their author and may have been compiled over a long period (see the “Introduction to Genesis”). However, Numbers provides the basis for the traditions crediting Moses as author of the Pentateuch. In Numbers 33:1–2, God commands Moses to record the Israelites’ movements during their wanderings between Egypt and the promised land—and the book may have begun as that account. Numbers also mentions additional literary sources (such as the Book of the Wars of Yahweh, in 21:14); references like this suggest that an editor was involved in shaping the book’s final form.
Structure
Numbers can be divided into three sections. The first and third sections, which are set 40 years apart, each begin with a census and report the Israelites’ preparations for a major move. In the first section (chs. 1–10), the move involves departing from Sinai (10:11–12); in the third section (chs. 26–36), the move involves crossing the Jordan River from Moab into the promised land (an event described in Joshua 3). The intervening section (Num 11–25) is a collection of stories and laws from the 40-year period between these moves. The book can also be outlined according to the major geographical locations it mentions.
Outline
• Preparing to leave Sinai (1:1–10:10)
• Journey to Kadesh Barnea (10:11–12:16)
• Wilderness wanderings (13:1–20:21)
• Journey to Moab (20:22–22:1)
• On the Plains of Moab (22:2–36:13)
Themes
Numbers focuses on God’s provision for the Israelites. In the process, it records detailed laws intended to create a society reflective of Yahweh’s holiness and justice. The narrative passages deal mostly with the Israelites’ failings, showing what happens when God’s people do not live according to His commands. Their mistakes result in calamity and Yahweh’s temporary judgment, issued so that He may preserve them from further evil.
Despite Israel’s failure, Yahweh honors His promise to Abraham and prepares Israel for entering the promised land. But there is a problem: Terrifying foes inhabit the promised land, and the people see no chance for success against them in war (chs. 13–14). Although the older generation lacks the trust to let Yahweh overcome these foes and dies in the wilderness, the younger generation—plus two faithful men, Caleb and Joshua—have an opportunity to enter the land. This new generation, led by Joshua, is left with a choice: to follow Yahweh, or turn away like the previous generation (27:15–23). Although Numbers ends without fully resolving this dilemma, the closing chapters anticipate the people’s future in Canaan, the promised land (e.g., ch. 34).
The wilderness journey presents challenges and blessings—all of which invite a faithful response. Numbers shows that trusting God is not merely a mental commitment; it involves action and bold risks. But Numbers emphasizes that a risk taken because of our faith in Yahweh is beautiful. It gives God the opportunity to demonstrate His protection, meet our needs, and be present among us. Numbers also shows us that God pursues us, despite our failings. In relationship with Yahweh—facilitated by our great warrior and advocate Jesus—we find all the direction we will ever need (Heb 3–4).
Further Reading
Large Numbers in the Exodus and Wilderness Journey
Numbers, Book of CLBD
Introduction to Deuteronomy
Deuteronomy concludes the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Bible, with further instruction from Moses, the man who led the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt and received God’s law (see Exodus). In Deuteronomy, Moses reviews teachings and events from the time of the exodus and the people’s wilderness wanderings. He exhorts the Israelites to love their God Yahweh and obey His commandments. Deuteronomy ends with the final events of Moses’ life, including the official appointment of his successor Joshua—the man who formerly encouraged the Israelites to faithfully conquer the promised land despite terrible foes (Num 13–14). Deuteronomy records Moses telling the Israelites how to live in the land long ago promised to their forefather Abraham (Gen 12:1–3)—a land they must still conquer.
Background
Deuteronomy 31:9 indicates Moses’ involvement in writing the law portions of Deuteronomy. For this reason and others, Jewish and Christian traditions ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses, but it may have been completed and edited later (for more information on this debate, see the “Introduction to Genesis”).
Deuteronomy’s narrative is set on the plains of Moab, just across the Jordan River from the promised land, where the Israelites are camping after their 40 years of wilderness wandering—placing it within the same period as the closing chapters of Numbers.
The title “Deuteronomy” means “second law.” The book reiterates the law and the events recorded in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. It also establishes a framework for viewing this history: If the Israelites are faithful to God’s covenant, they will have peace and receive blessings from Yahweh, but if they turn away, they will experience curses of war, famine, and death—all of which are meant to prompt them to stay faithful. This framework is applied to subsequent books that narrate Israel’s later history (Joshua, Judges, 1–2 Samuel, 1–2 Kings).
The structure of Deuteronomy resembles ancient Near Eastern treaties between kings and the foreign nations they conquered. In these agreements, both the king and the nation accepted certain obligations; if the nation fulfilled the terms of the treaty, there would be peace. Deuteronomy’s similarities with these ancient documents, examples of which date from the fourteenth to the seventh centuries bc, likely indicate that it originated around the same time.
Structure
Deuteronomy has three major sections followed by an epilogue. Each major section presents a speech by Moses and begins with a special phrase marking it as a distinct unit.
The first speech (Deut 1:1–4:43) is introduced with a phrase stating these are “the words.” Moses uses the wilderness journey to teach the Israelites about God. This history shows that Yahweh is faithful to His people and able to overcome their enemies—and that Israel must trust and obey Him. If they do not follow Yahweh’s ways, they will not be able to live long term in the promised land.
Moses’ second speech (4:44–28:68), which is the longest of the three, is introduced with the phrase “this is the law.” After Moses repeats a form of the Ten Commandments (5:6–21), he expands on them in the subsequent chapters.
Moses’ third speech (29:1–30:20) is introduced with the same phrase that opens the first speech. Moses calls the Israelites to renew their covenant with Yahweh. He warns the Israelites that violating the covenant will lead to death, but he also assures them that repenting and trusting God will lead to life and blessing.
The epilogue (31:1–34:12) deals with the end of Moses’ life. Joshua succeeds Moses as leader of the Israelites. Moses sings a farewell song and blesses the people, and his life on this earth ends.
Outline
• Moses’ review of history (1:1–4:43)
• Moses’ review of the law (4:44–28:68)
• Moses’ review of the covenant (29:1–30:20)
• Moses’ final words and death (31:1–34:12)
Themes
One of the central messages of Deuteronomy is that God loves the Israelites, as seen in His promises to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Deuteronomy also indicates that Yahweh showed His love for the Israelites by rescuing them from Egypt and will continue to do so by giving them the promised land. The Israelites should respond to Yahweh’s love by believing He can do anything He asks of them—even overcome dreadful foes in the promised land (31:1–6).
Moses commands the people to love Yahweh with all their heart, soul, and might—a statement Jesus will later call the greatest commandment (Deut 6:5; Matt 22:36–40). As God’s people we are to take courage and boldly embrace whatever He asks us to do, through the power of Christ (Deut 31:6–7; Acts 5). And if we do, we will surely see God at work in our lives, communities, and world.
Further Reading
Deuteronomy, Book of CLBD
About Faithlife Study BibleFaithlife Study Bible (FSB) is your guide to the ancient world of the Old and New Testaments, with study notes and articles that draw from a wide range of academic research. FSB helps you learn how to think about interpretation methods and issues so that you can gain a deeper understanding of the text. |
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