4:1 Hear the word of Yahweh Prophets commonly use this phrase to emphasize that their message comes from Yahweh. See Isa 1:10 and note; compare Jer 2:4; 7:2; Ezek 13:2.

There is no faithfulness Israel’s ultimate restoration will be characterized by a reversal of this state of affairs. Compare Hos 2:19–20.

knowledge of God Produces behavior emulating God. See note on 2:19; compare Jer 31:34.

4:2 Swearing and lying, murdering and stealing, and adultery The offenses listed here are violations of the Ten Commandments, especially Exod 20:13–16.

bloodshed follows bloodshed Compare Jer 7:6; 22:3, 17.

4:3 the land mourns The curses of the covenant affected the entire land, and by extension, all life dependent on that land (Deut 28:18, 23–24).

4:5 the priest also will stumble with you Describes false prophecy; compare Jer 14:13–16; 23:9–40.

your mother Probably a metaphorical reference to Israel (compare Hos 2:2).

4:6 are destroyed for lack of knowledge The priests were responsible for teaching the Law to the people (see Lev 10:11). Compare Isa 5:13.

4:8 They feed on the sin of my people The Hebrew word here can refer to sin itself or a sin offering. The priests benefited directly from the sacrificial system, which was their source of food (see Lev 6:25–26). It was in their own self-interest to allow the people to sin more and more.

4:10 they will play the whore and not multiply The prophet draws on the metaphor of idol-worship as adultery: The people will not receive any benefit from their infidelity. Compare note on Hos 1:2–11; 2:5 and note.

4:12 wooden idols Refers to an idol carved of wood (compare Isa 44:15) or an Asherah pole (see note on Isa 17:8).

4:13 On the tops of the mountains they sacrifice The prophet is probably referring to mountain shrines called high places (see note on Ezek 20:29; note on Isa 57:7). Prophets frequently attack these local shrines as the sites for Israel’s idolatrous worship (e.g., Isa 2:14; Jer 3:23; Ezek 6:13; 20:28).

oak, poplar, and terebinth Idolatrous practices were associated with trees. See note on Ezek 6:13.

4:14 they go aside with whores The Hebrew verb in this verse means “divide” or “spread” and could be a euphemism for sexual intercourse.

they sacrifice with temple prostitutes The references to prostitution in the context of idol worship (Hos 4:12–14) suggests that sexual practices were part of Canaanite fertility rituals.

4:15 Gilgal Probably a reference to the Gilgal near Jericho, where Israel camped during the conquest. Joshua had set up 12 stones there as a memorial (Josh 4:1–8, 19–24). The site later became an important religious center (1 Sam 7:16; 10:8; 11:14–15). The prophet Amos also criticizes Gilgal for religious infidelity (Amos 4:4; 5:5).

Beth-aven The prophet may be referring to a city in the territory of Benjamin, located near the border with Ephraim. Or he may be making an indirect and derogatory reference to the Israelite shrine at Bethel, located in the territory of Ephraim (see Amos 5:5).

4:17 Ephraim Hosea uses the name Ephraim to refer to the whole northern kingdom of Israel 37 times. The hill country of Ephraim was the core of Israelite territory; it was where Samaria, the capital, and the important city of Shechem were located. Ephraim was traditionally one of the strongest tribes of the northern kingdom.

4:19 A wind has wrapped them in its wings See note on Hos 5:4.

they will be ashamed because of their altars Compare Isa 1:29.